The noun means is used both in the singular and the plural number.

As a general rule for the use of the word means, as either singular or plural, it would render the construction less vague, and the expression therefore less ambiguous, were we to employ it as singular, when the mediation or instrumentality of one thing is implied; and, as plural, when two of more mediating causes are referred to. "He was careful to observe what means were employed by his adversaries, to counteract his schemes." Here means is properly joined with a plural verb, several methods of counteraction being signified. "The king consented; and, by this means, all hope of success was lost." Here but one mediating circumstance is implied; and the noun is, therefore, used as singular,

The following words,

which have been adopted from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with respect to number.

*Genii, when denoting aerial spirits: Geniuses, when signifying persons of genius.

Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or Tables of contents: Indices, when referring to Algebraic quantities.

P

Some words, derived from the learned languages, are confined to the plural number: as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minuti.

The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plural, are used in the same manner, when adopted into bur tongue; hiatus, apparatus, series, species,

Section 4.

of Case.

In English, substantives have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective*.

The nominative case simply expresses the name bf a thing, or the subject of the verb: as, "The boy plays;" The girls learn."

The possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession; and has an apostrophe with the letters coming after it: as, "The scholar's duty;" "My father's house."

The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the infective, the accusative,

When the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained: as, "On eagles' wings;""The drapers' company *."

Sometimes also, when the singular terminates in ss, the apostrophic s is not added: as, "For goodness' sake;" "For righteousness' sake."

The objective case expresses the object of an action, or of a relation; and generally follows a verb active, or a preposition: as, "John assists Charles;" " They live in London."

English substantives are declined in the following manner.

THE English language, to express different connexions and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and some too among the modern languages, as

*As a proof of the utility of marking the genitive plural with the apostrophe, we need recur only to a few common phrases.

All the ships masts were blown away.

All the trees leaves were blown off.

In these, and similar phrases, it is only the apostrophe, placed before or after the t, that determines the ships and trees to be either singular or plural.

the German, vary the termination or ending of the substantive, to answer the same purpose; an example of which, in the Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of the nature and use of cases, viz.

Some writers think, that the relations signified by the addition of articles and prepositions to the noun, may properly be denominated cases, in English; and that, on this principle, there are, in our language, as many cases as in the Latin tongue. But to this mode of forming cases for our substantives, there are strong objections. It would, indeed, be a formal and useless arrangement of nouns, articles, and prepositions. If an arrangement of this nature were to be considered as constituting cases, the English language would have a much greater number of them, than the Greek and Latin tongues: for, as every preposition has its distinct meaning and effect, every combination of a preposition and article with the noun, would form a different relation, and would constitute a distinct case. This would encumber our language with

many new terms, and a heavy and useless load of distinctions *.

On the principle of imitating other languages in names and forms, without a correspondence in nature and idiom, we might adopt a number of declensions, as well as a variety of cases, for English substantives. Thus, five or six declensions, distinguished according to the various modes of forming the plural of substantives, with at least half a dozen cases to each declension, would furnish a complete arrangement of English nouns, in all their trappings. See on this subject, the fijth and ninth sections of the sixth chapter of etymology.

But though this variety of cases does not at all correspond with the idiom of our language, there seems to be great propriety in admitting a case in English substantives, which snail serve to denote the objects of active verbs and of prepositions; and which is, therefore, properly termed the objective case. The general idea of case, doubtless, has a reference to the termination of the noun: but there are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the nominative and accusative cases have precisely the same form, and are distinguished only by the relation they bear to other words in the sentence. We are therefore warranted, by analogy, in applying this principle to our own language, as far as utility, and the idiom of it, will admit. Now it is obvious, that in English, a noun governed by an active verb, or a preposition, is very differently circumstanced, from a noun in the nomi

"If cases are to be distinguished by the different significations of the noun, or by the different relations it may bear to the governing word, then we have in our language as many cases almost, as there are prepositions: and, above a man, beneath a man, beyond a man, round about a man, within a man, without a man, &c. shall be cases, as well as, of a man, to a man, and with a man." Dr. Beattie.