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CHAPTER LXI.

SECONDARY PLEASURES AND PAINS.

§ 1. IN treating of Primary Pleasures and Pains, if the catalogue is as complete as I suppose it to be, we have exhausted the basic pleasures and pains of our nature. We now pass to a division where an exhaustive catalogue cannot be made, but in which an enumeration of some principal groups must suffice. For, according to the explanation heretofore given of what is included under the head which forms the title of this chapter, there are innumerable groups of pleasures and pains which are comprised thereunder. The secondary pleasures and pains are those associated with. objects (external things, actions, or states) which are regarded as directly ministering to the fundamental enjoyments; they are closely and intimately related to the former, and their importance is readily seen to be derived from that relation. For example, the pleasure of repose is a primary pleasure; the pleasure of the couch is a secondary pleasure, its origin being the association of the idea of repose with that of a couch, and the secondary pleasure being readily resolvable into the primary, and deriving its meaning from the primary. It is one step forward in the process of redintegration. So also the enjoyment of eating is primary; the pleasures of the table are secondary; the delight of exercise is primary; the pleasures of the chariot secondary. Thus a subclass may be made wherever there is an object around which associations gather; they may be more or less general, according to circumstances; there may be a secondary pleasure of the table, and one of the fruit on it or of the wine which cheers the feast. Hence appears the impracticability of making a complete list of the pleasures and pains of this division.

§ 2. If it be asked whether the secondary pleasures and pains are anything but representative primary pleasures and pains, the answer should be in the negative. It then may be further inquired whether there is any difference between an ideal primary pleasure and a secondary pleasure; whether the pleasure of the couch is not an ideal pleasure of repose, for instance. It may be so considered, but though secondary pleasures may be regarded as representative primary pleasures, not every ideal primary pleasure is a secondary pleasure. I may recall a delightful

evening spent upon a sofa before a blazing fire, with my book and pipe, or I may imagine one; in this representative experience I have an ideal pleasure which is still primary so long as the repose is the central object of thought and the nucleus of it; but if I connect the experience with the sofa especially, and make that the centre of the associations, in thinking of the pleasures of the sofa I form a representative cluster of pleasures around that object which are secondary. I speak of the pleasures of the sofa considering the sofa as an object through which and by which I obtain the pleasure of rest. I may have an ideal pleasure from the representation of a gathering of people, yet so long as the chief idea in this representation is the enjoyment of social intercourse, I am entitled only to regard it as the representative primary pleasure of society; but now, when I think of it as the pleasure of the club, I attach the pleasures to an object not the ultimate centre of the pleasure, and in so doing I make a secondary pleasure. When, therefore, we have a pleasure which we characterise by a name which does not carry the mind directly back to the ultimate appetitive cravings of human nature, it belongs to the present class (or possibly the next). A similar line of remark may be made of pains.

§ 3. Whenever, then, a pleasure or pain is designated by the name of a definite concrete object, it is a secondary; we have this infallible criterion. Ambiguities arise wherein the same name is used to designate a feeling and an external agent. Take, for example, heat; when the mind refers to the experience the pleasure described is primary; when it refers to the material object as the agent, the pleasure indicated is secondary-heat may mean either the sensation or the agent causing the sensation. But, with this exception, there can no confusion arise from the names used in our table of primary pleasures and pains, and by reason of the broad terms we employ here to describe a large section of the secondary pleasures and pains. This section, however, does not embrace all that are secondary. There are some abstract names used to designate pleasures and pains which names do not have direct application to the primary, but yet indicate actions or states whose reference is very directly to the primary pleasures and pains. We speak of the pleasures of occupation and the pains of idleness, and the mind is at once carried back to movement and exercise on the one hand and inaction on the other. Occupation is a broader term than exercise, and yet occupation is to secure

the pleasures of exercise and its associates; idleness contributes to bring the corresponding pains. Rowing is another more specific term of like character; this name denotes action which is to obtain the pleasures of exercise. If, then, we speak of the pleasures of rowing, we describe secondary pleasures. Wherever we make use of a term which has regard not to the feeling but to the action which produces the feeling, and avail ourselves of it to describe a group of pleasures or pains, they come within the division which forms the subject of this chapter. Here great confusion may arise unless care be taken. Pleasures of respiration may be esteemed secondary if the reference is not to the sensation but to the action causing it. So also pleasures of vision, pleasures of movement themselves, pleasures and pains of alimentation and others of the primary pains. But the difficulty may be avoided if we continually bear in mind that a designation referring to the pleasurable or painful sensation itself (or a representative of it, wherein the idea of the sensation is still the prominent one) describes a primary pleasure or pain; while a designation referring chiefly to an action which results in a pleasurable or painful sensation describes a secondary pleasure or pain. Pleasures of walking, riding, sitting, standing, lifting, swallowing, reclining, talking, and the like are, in this view, secondary pleasures, because the names refer not so much to the feeling itself as to the action which produces the feeling.

In a third section of secondary pleasures and pains may be included those indicated by some abstract names whose notions embrace a more general range of objects, combining often representations of two or three or more of the primary pleasures and pains; and yet not sufficiently complex to place them in the tertiary division. These names describe actions or states which are evidently closely related to the primary feelings, and which, like all the other names of secondary pleasures and pains, derive their force and meaning from the primary. Such actions and states are indicated by the terms occupation-idleness, before used; security -insecurity; freedom of movement, restraint and captivity, and the like.

From these examples and illustrations there will be manifest the distinction here made between primary pleasures and painsthe original fundamental appetitive cravings of human nature and their opposites and secondary pleasures and pains-the more direct ministers to those pleasures and pains, described either by the

name of some external object, or of some action or some state of representative feeling tending to secure some of the primary pleasures and pains.

§ 4. Since, then, the secondary pleasures and pains are differentiations from the primary, are so closely related to them, and indeed may be resolved into them, it must be observed that in illustrating the primary pleasures and pains we are forced to make use of the secondary. All the variety there is in pleasure and pain, except so far as there is fundamental difference in sensation, springs from variety of the objects with which the feelings are associated. And the feeling is always associated with some object. We have accordingly brought out in the preceding chapter a large number of groups of pleasures and pains which are to be marked as secondary. In illustrating the pleasures of movement we developed the delights of the tourney, of games, of walking, of dancing, and of travelling; each one of them making a group by itself would be a secondary group. Accordingly we shall have less need in this chapter of lengthy illustration of secondary pleasures and pains. Moreover, whatever illustration we do give, will also be illustration of primary pleasures and pains, since the secondary are always resolvable into the primary.

§ 5. An objection may here be raised that while professedly this classification is upon the theory that secondary pleasures and pains are more representative than primary, in fact the primary may be more complex than the secondary, the secondary really going to make up the primary. The pleasures of walking, riding, leaping, running, dancing, etc., constitute the pleasures of movement and exercise, the latter being the former aggregated and generalised. It is true that the terms, integrity, respiration, movement, repose and the rest do express notions which are the results of generalisations. But they point (or are intended to point) to the feelings represented and generalised: whereas the terms expressive of the secondary pleasures and pains mean the feeling as subjective plus the object causing the feeling, that is the associated object. The fact that some of the names of primary pleasures express secondary has already been adverted to, and the means of remedying any confusion likely to arise have been pointed out (§ 3). The primary class contains pleasures and pains with regard to their subjective side, the secondary with regard to their objective associations; in the latter the subjective primary

feeling is always present, but the associations and varieties of objective connection are superadded.

§ 6. It may be well to notice in this place that the line of demarcation between secondary and tertiary pleasures is not a distinct one. Those aggregates of association which seem to be most closely connected with the primary feelings, and which are relatively less representative, should be included among the secondary; the more complex aggregates among the tertiary. In some respect the relations of the grand divisions of pleasures and pains may be shown by a comparison to a number of trees standing near together and with their branches and leaves all interlaced. In each trunk we may find a primary pleasure (or pain) spreading out into a thousand offshoots, and proceeding in a thousand different directions. If now we gather together small groups of contiguous leaves and branches of the different trunks as they lie interlaced, we shall have secondary divisions; then taking still larger collections in the same way we have tertiary divisions. The fault of the simile lies in great part in the fact, that the primary pleasures and pains are not separate and distinct like the trunks of trees, but are themselves interfused and interconnected.

§ 7. The following table will give the three subordinate classes of secondary pleasures and pains with some examples of each.

Section First.-Pleasures and pains of material objects around which are clustered in association the primary pleasures and pains, in varying relations.

Examples. Pleasures and pains of clothing, defensive armour, weapons of offence, instruments of torture, lamps, the sun, stoves, furnaces, fires, the eye, fog, ice, air, breezes, poisonous vapours, enclosed places, dungeons, tonic medicines, cheering spectacles, poisons, funeral gatherings, carriages, railway cars, quoits, balls, tools, fetters, stocks, sofas, beds, easy-chairs, hashheesh, opium, wine, bread, meat, fruits, carrion, nettles, mosquitoes, beautiful limbs, musical instruments, perfumes, books, villages, public works, deserts, prairies.

Section Second.--Pleasures and pains of actions, or states which are directly conducive to securing primary pleasures and pains.

Examples.-Pleasures and pains of defence, self-mortification, sunrise, eclipse, sunset, balloon-excursion, inflation of the lungs; holding the breath, temperance, intemperance, swimming, riding, thinking, straining, enervating habits, over-exertion,