M. C. Chagas published during the year his researches on a new species of trypanosome, named by him Trypanosome cruzi, in human blood in Brazil. The effects of the parasite are most marked in children, among whom it appears to cause severe mortality, especially in the province of Minas Geraes. The chief symptoms are anæmia, oedema, and disturbances of the nervous system, leading to imbecility. The parasite is conveyed by a species of bug (Conorhinus megistus), a voracious blood-sucker of large size and nocturnal habits. Prof. Minchin, in reviewing the work of Chagas, observes that there are variations in the virulence of the parasite, as the result of passage through different vertebrate hosts. Reports of the biological investigations conducted by the Shackleton Antarctic Expedition

gian Antarctic Expedition, were published during the year. Mr. Murray, the biologist of the Shackleton Expedition, distinguished some sixteen different species of rotifers, though mostly bdelloids. This is the first definite record of rotifers within the Antarctic circle, and five of the bdelloids are new species. The most interesting facts are those regarding the toughness of the rotifer's constitution. One species (Philodina gregaria) is annually frozen in the ice of the lakes for the greater part of the year, and revives at any time the ice is thawed. It was frozen and thawed and dried experimentally for many months, and flourished in England.

The Proceedings of the Malaria Conference in Simla were published; and it reported a general progress both in prophylactic and preventive measures.

Among the deaths to be reported since the last publication of the ANNUAL is that of Dr. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.

Madame Curie and M. Debierne presented a joint memoir to the Paris Académie des Sciences in September, announcing that they had succeeded in isolating pure radium. The metallic radium obtained was reported to be of a brilliant white colour, which blackens when exposed to air. It burns paper, rapidly decomposes water, and adheres to iron.

Earlier in the year it was reported that Madame Curie and M. Debierne had isolated polonium. Prof. Rutherford pointed out that polonium was one of the transition elements produced during the transformation of uranium into radium and of radium into other substances whose properties are under investigation. The chief interest of the discovery lies in ascertaining whether polonium changes into lead.

Sir William Ramsay announced (see BRITISH ASSOCIATION) that one of these transition elements was a definite gas (radium emanation). The Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts was presented to Madame Curie for her researches.

Prof. S. Young announced to the Royal Dublin Society on Jan. 25th the results of his work, begun in 1888, on the vapour-pressures, specific volumes, heats of vaporisation, and critical constants of thirty pure substances.

Sir Edward Thorpe and A. G. Francis an nounced to the Royal Society on Feb. 24th their researches on the atomic weight of strontium, for which they adopted the definite value o! 87.65.

At the seventy-eighth annual meeting of the British Medical Association, held in London in July, Drs. Dominici and Wickham came from Paris to discuss the subject of radium treat ment. They made it clear that cancer in accessible regions can be reduced in size. Early detection of the cancer and early application of radium are two important points.

A Congress on Radiology and Electricity was held at Brussels on September 13th to 15th. Among the important matters discussed were the questions of terminology and methods of

measurement in radioactivity and subjects connected with ionisation; the effect of radiations on living organisms; and the radioactivity of the atmosphere.

Prof. Bone and Dr. H. F. Coward conducted a number of important experiments in their work on the production of methane by the direct union of hydrogen with carbon.

A memoir was contributed by M. Jean Perrin to Le Radium giving an account of his measurements of the Brownian movements in emulsions of gamboge and of mastic; and of the calculations of a number of molecular constants he has based on these observations.

An important series of papers was published by Dr. J. P. van der Stok on the Theory of the Tides, together with data of the tides of the Dutch East Indies ("Elementaire Theorie der Getijden-Getij-Constanten in den Indische Archipel" (K. Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut, No. 102, 1910). The memoir was reviewed by Sir G. H. Darwin in Nature, Aug. 4th.

Prince Galitzin, of the Imperial Academy, St. Petersburg, has devised a new form of seismograph, which records not merely the occurrence of an earthquake on a large scale of magnification, but also gives an exact reproduction of the horizontal movement of the earth at the observing-station. Prince Galitzin personally superintended the setting up of a pair presented by Dr. Schuster to the Eskdale-Muir Observatory.

Mr. Priestley's work on the influence of electrical discharges, induced by Sir Oliver Lodge's high-tension valves, has received the attention of the Board of Agriculture.

Among the important discourses delivered at the Royal Institution during the year was one by Lord Rayleigh on "The Colours of Sea and Sky, in which he reiterated his theory of the causation of blueness in the sky as due to the scattering of light by microscopic particles smaller than the wave-length of light, and added that the colour of water was partly due to the scattering of the light which it received

A new process for producing protective metallic coatings of one metal for another was invented and described by M. J. Schoop, of Zurich (Metallurgical and Chemical Engineer ing, vol. viii. p. 404). The chief point of the new process is that the metal in the liquid condition is sprayed upon the surface to be coated. The subdivision or atomising of the

Among the losses sustained by chemistry during the year were those caused by the deaths of Prof. Stanislao Canizzaro and of Dr. Ludwig Mond. Prof. Canizzaro belonged to a past generation of chemists, but it was his clear thinking which half a century ago re-established the atomic theory and rendered our conceptions of atoms and molecules, gaseous volumes and valency, and all that is connected with these conceptions, logical and consistent. Dr. Mond, though a patient and brilliant investigator (his last paper on "Some Metallic Carbonyls" was published after his death), was chiefly known as an industrial chemist who was of great service to his adopted country, endowing its research and establishing a profitable industry.

Polar Exploration.-The conquest of the North Pole having been achieved by Commander Peary, as described in the last ANNUAL, and the short-lived claim of his would-be rival being already half forgotten, interest in Polar matters is now focussed chiefly on the South. Following the splendid work accomplished in recent years in the expeditions led by Captain Scott and Lieutenant (now Sir) Ernest Shackleton, a new British Antarctic Expedition has been organised by the former to continue the work and, if possible, to win the Pole. The Terra Nova, under Lieut. Evans, R.N., second in command, well-equipped and provisioned, sailed in June via the Cape of Good Hope, Melbourne, and Sydney, for Lyttleton, New Zealand, where additional provisions and stores, motor sledges, and animals were embarked, the animals including twenty ponies and thirty dogs which Mr. Meares, a member of the party, had collected in Siberia. The expedition, towards which the Government has made a grant of £20,000, includes a strong staff of scientific men, of whom Dr. Wilson, formerly associated with Captain Scott, is the chief. Captain Scott, who left England on July 16th to join the ship, hoped to reach McMurdo Sound at the end of December. Here it is intended to land a large party, to establish the western base and winter station, from which sledge parties will be sent southwards to form depôts, in anticipation of the great polar advance in the summer of 1911-12. The western party having been settled, the ship will proceed to King Edward Land, where the eastern party will be landed at a point about 400 miles from McMurdo Sound. It is proposed that the ship, after returning to the western base, shall make a short cruise for coast-surveying and biological research before proceeding to New Zealand. During the winter preparations will be made for the main southward expedition. Led by Captain Scott, it will be accompanied by a large supporting party, most of whom will be sent back from time to time. It is considered doubtful if either animals or sledges can be used beyond the Great Barrier, the mountain gorges and passes which have to be ascended in order to reach the interior plateau presenting formidable, if not insuperable, obstacles to their advance.

Other expeditions are being organised to attack the Antarctic problem from different points, all being expected to start during 1911. Dr. Bruce,

leader of the Scottish Antarctic expedition, proposes sailing to the Weddell Sea, where he has already done good work, and starting from Coats' Land to attempt the crossing of the Antarctic continent. A German expedition, commanded by Lieut. Filchner, also includes in its scheme a traverse of the continent between the Weddell and Ross Seas, one of the objects being to ascertain whether East and West Antarctica are united or separate. An American expedition in the Roosevelt, commanded by Captain Bartlett of Arctic fame, intends to start from a point directly opposite Captain Scott's base, and about 2,000 miles from it. Dr. Charcot, in the Pourquoi Pas? returned during the summer after an absence of two years. Adelaide Island was found to have a length of seventy miles, and a portion peviously unknown was named Queen Alexandra Land. In the vicinity of Graham Land the continental plateau has a very irregular surface, and Peter 1. Land rises abruptly from the ocean depths.

Arctic Regions. The Mikkelsen expedition, which went out last year in search of papers left by Mylius Erichsen, lost their vessel on the East Greenland coast; search was, however, continued, and the body of Brolund, one of Erichsen's companions, was found and buried. Mr. Mikkelsen himself, accompanied by Iversen, started for Denmark fiord, where he hoped to find the papers, intending then to cross to Cape York. The other members of the party returned home in August. Captain Amunsden in the Fram has been engaged in oceanographical investigations in the North Atlantic in co-operation with Dr. Nansen in the Frithjof. Captain Amunsden intends to continue observations in the South Atlantic and Pacific on his way to San Francisco, from which he hopes to start next year for Bering Sea on the Arctic voyage, for which he takes seven years' provision. His plan is to get his ship fast in the ice and then allow it to be carried by the drift across the Polar Sea. He hopes to emerge between Greenland and Spitzbergen in 1915 or 1916. Captain Bernier sailed in July on another Arctic voyage. An Arctic Zeppelin expedition has been organised in Germany to explore the unknown parts of Franz Joseph Land and Spitzbergen, by means of airship, with two steamers in support. Mr. Knud Rasmussen proposes next year to conduct a Danish expedition to investigate the original migrations of the central Eskimo.

Africa.-Lieut. Alexander Boyd, so well known for his explorations in West Africa, especially in the Lake Chad region, was killed by natives at Nyere, seventy miles north of Abesher, on Apríl and. After leaving the Kamerun (see ANNUAL, 1910), he proceeded eastward with the design of reaching Egypt by way of Wadai and Darfur, but met his death in the former country. It may be recalled that Captain Claud Alexander, his youngest brother, who with him was associated in the Alexander-Gosling expedition, died of fever near Lake Chad in

1904.

An account by Captain J. Tilho of his investigations on Lake Chad, when engaged in frontier delimitation in 1907-8, has been published this year. The results are of peculiar interest, as Captain Tilho was able to compare the conditions with those which had been observed by himself and Lieut. Audouin in 1904. The observations throw light on the transformations of this remarkable lake whose features have been so variously described by travellers. The northern portion, which in 1904 had been navigated by the explorers, was in 1908 converted into a dried-up plain crossed by caravans. So rapidly had desiccation progressed that fish had been unable to escape, and large numbers, taking refuge in shallow pools, died, the poisoned stagnant waters in turn causing the death of hundreds of cattle. Succeeding the dry belt were marsh grass and reeds, with miniature forests of ambach, a rapidly growing tree or shrub. Farther south was a stretch of open water surrounded by forests of ambach through which channels led to the open water around the mouth of the Shari. The average depth is about 6 to 8 feet. Mr. E. Torday, a Hungarian who, accompanied by Mr. Hilton Simpson, spent about two years in investigation in the Kasai basin, collected much valuable information, especially as to the region lying between the Loange and the Kasai. Dr. Karl Kumm, in traversing the Sudan, found the source of the Kotto (tributary of the Ubangi) much farther north than was previously supposed. Captain Cortier has astronomically fixed the position of several important points in the Sahara between Adrar and the Niger bend. The continued surveys of M. Villatte in the central and northern Sahara and the geological researches of M. Gentil in Morocco have contributed to a better knowledge of these regions. A new African expedition has been undertaken by the Duke of Mecklenberg.

The Dunebelt of German S.W. Africa has been studied by Lieut. Trenk, who crossed it twice, in the westerly route, south of the 25th parallel, and on the return journey south of the 24th. In the east the dunes were generally grassgrown, forming ridges lying N.N.W. and S.S.E., but more to the west they consisted of loose sand drifted into irregular complex masses, very difficult to traverse. Near the sea the dunes presented a steep descent of nearly 200 feet, in several places close to the water. Dr. Rudolf Pöch describes similar ridges of dunes in the southern Kalahari. Survey-work is progressing in the AngloEgyptian Sudan, to which the Lado Enclave has been handed over since the death of King Leopold. In Italian Somaliland a survey has been begun under Captain Egide; and Captain Citerni is engaged in the delimitation of the Abyssinian frontier. The gap between the north and south sections of the Cape to Cairo

railway is being lessened, the northern line having been carried 200 miles beyond Khartum and the southern across the border of N.W. Rhodesia.

Asia.-The expedition of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society led by Colonel P. Kozloff has continued its operations. The Amdo highland region south of the Koko-nor was found to be crossed east and west by lofty ranges, and inhabited by warlike Tanguts. Excavations were made among the ruins of Khara-Khoto (11th to 14th century) discovered by Kozloff near the old channel of the Etsingol, and a rich collection obtained, including books, manuscripts, Buddhist paintings, statuettes, and miscellaneous objects. M. Bacot, exploring on the China-Tibet frontier, reached Likiang in February, after passing a glacier in which the Kiu-kiang or Irawadi takes its rise. Major d'Ollone during his expedition in the region of the upper Hwang ho found the true position of the great bend to be nearly one degree east of that usually shown on the map. News has been received from Mr. Douglas Carruthers, who early in the year set out for exploration in the upper Yenesei basin and other parts of Mongolia. The expedition reached Chakul in July. The main range of the Saiansk Mountains as shown on maps was found to be represented only by isolated rugged groups. Many glacial lakes were seen, not marked on the maps. The characteristics of the region are said to be Siberian rather than Mongolian. An American expedition to N.W. China, led by Captain Robert Clark, has determined the position of several towns. Prof. Saposhnikoff, exploring in the Altai region in 1909, discovered an important group of snowy peaks and glaciers at the source of the Kanas, a tributary of the Black Irtish. Dr. Paul Eröber, formerly associated with Dr. Merzbacher, has devoted some time to the examination of the ranges S. and W. of Ush Turfan, which are separated from the main Tian-shan by the Kok-shal valley. M. Obru cheff has been investigating the mountains of Dzungaria, especially those forming the eastern continuation of the the Alatau. Like other mountains in the region, the summits form partly grass-covered plateaus, 3,500 to 6,500 ft. in height. A Japanese expedition to Chinese Turkestan and Mongolia led by M. Zuicho Tachibam proposes as one special object to ascertain the relation between the Lop, Edsina, and Ansi depressions. M. Henry Maitre explored on the borders of Cambodia, Anam, and Cochin-China, a plateau 2,500 to 300, bordered on its eastern side by a mountain range, rising to over 4,500 ft. Fro the plateau several streams descend by magnif cent falls. Valuable information with regard to some almost unknown parts of Norther Arabia has been collected by Prof. Alois who was accompanied by Serjeant-ajor Thomasberger, of the Military Geographical Institute of Vienna.

The British expedition to Dutch New Gines, led by Capt. Rawling, sustained a severlass in the death of Mr. Stalker, who perished in the jungle. Progress towards the mourns dominated by the snow-capped Carstenz T supposed to be higher than Wilhelminah Peak (15,580), was extremely difficult owing the dense and tangled undergrowth. Two vers were discovered, the Tuaba and Kamurlu and pygmies were met, supposed to be Neve

A Dutch expedition, led by Mr. A. H. Lorentz, ascended a portion of the range on which are glaciers. The snow-line was reached at 14,635 ft. Dr. Schultze has been engaged on the boundary survey of German and Dutch New Guinea.

North America. A report was published during the year of an expedition led by Prof. Tarr, under the auspices of the National Geographic Society, for the study of Alaskan glaciers. Instances of remarkable "spasmodic advance were recorded, supposed by Prof. Tarr to be due to severe earthquake shocks in the Yakutat Bay region. In one case a glacier which in 1905 and 1906 appeared to be stationary at a distance of 2 miles from the sea, had in 1909 advanced close to the sea, to which it presented a high and steep face, while the surface had become deeply crevassed. The results of important exploratory work by Mr. Joseph Keele of the Canadian Geological Survey were also published this year. The region investigated is a highland tract lying between the Mackenzie and Yukon basins, with groups of mountains, some rising to 7000 ft., forming part of the backbone of North America, and to which the general name of Mackenzie Mountains has been given. A report on the exploration of Saskatchewan, made with a view to its suitability for settlement, is of great interest from the economic standpoint. It states that of an area of about 22,000,000 acres lying between the Churchill River and Prince Albert, about 5,000,000 acres are ready for immediate settlement, while the remainder, comprising great tracts of swamp and muskeg, is reclaimable, and that practically the whole area, which is traversed by numerous waterways, is capable of producing cereals in abundance. Prof. Coleman, of Toronto University, gives an account of the ascent of Mount Robson, Alberta (13,700 ft.), the highest point of the Canadian Rockies, with 7,500 to 8,000 ft. of nevé and glaciers on its north side. A glacial stream feeds two small lakes-Adolph belonging to the Smoky River,

and Berg to the Grand Forks. As the watershed forms the boundary between British Columbia and Alberta, a curious geographical problem is presented. It had previously been supposed that the whole group was in British Columbia.

South America. An expedition to Colombia, sent out by the Swiss Federal Government under the leadership of Drs. Fuhrmann and Mayar, of Neuchâtel University, is expected to spend a year in the study of the fauna and flora. Baron Erland Nordenskiöld has returned from Bolivia, where he was engaged in studying the tribes of the eastern part. Major Fawcett explored in the vicinity of the Heath and Madidi Rivers. An expedition to the Andean region, under Dr. Farabee, returned to the United States in the autumn of last year. In Central Brazil Miss Snethlage crossed a hitherto unmapped district between the Xingu and Tapajos. The forest Indians of the Araguaya basin in Brazil have been the object of investigation by Dr. Kissenbarth. An expedition, led by Dr. Fritz Reichert, left Buenos Aires at the end of 1909 for the purpose of surveying the Juncal massif south of Aconcagua.

Oceanographical work has been carried on during the year by several expeditions. The Michael Sars expedition, organised by Sir John Murray, under the leadership of Dr. Hjört, has completed a cruise in the Atlantic in which valuable information has been obtained. Observations were made in the eastern and western, or upper and lower, currents of the Strait of Gibraltar, the limit between which was found to be from 50 to 100 fathoms, varying with the tide. A velocity of one or two knots was common in both currents. Observations were also made in the Gulf Stream, and marked indications found of a counter-current on its southern border. The Oceanographical Museum at Monaco was opened in March last by the Prince of Monaco.

The tenth International Geographical Congress is arranged to be held at Rome in October 1911.

To geologists the most interesting event in the year was the triennial meeting of the International Geological Congress, which held its eleventh session at Stockholm. Each meeting is held in a different country, the last having been in Mexico. The geology of the Polar regions was a prominent subject for discussion at Stockholm, and in connection with the Congress an excursion to Spitzbergen was organised, under Dr. de Geer. The workings for tertiary coal at Green Bay were visited. Another subject to which the Congress specially gave attention was that of the iron ore resources of the world, and in view of this discussion a magnificent work had been prepared, giving the results of an exhaustive inquiry in all civilised lands containing iron. So far as the United Kingdom was concerned, the total orereserves were estimated at 39,500,000,000 tons of ore, equivalent to 13,000,000,000 tons of metallic iron. That part of the work which relates to this country was prepared by Prof. H. Louis, of Newcastle.-When the Geologists' Association celebrated its jubilee in 1908, it was resolved to mark the occasion by the publication of a work descriptive of the geology of Great Britain as studied during the excursions

which form so marked a feature in the work of the association. The preparation of the volume was forthwith commenced, but as it progressed it increased in bulk beyond expectation, and has only recently been completed. It is now published in four thick parts under the title of "Geology in the Field," edited by Messrs. Monckton and Herries, and forms a very valuable companion to thestudent of British geology.

The English translation of Prof. Suess's monumental work, "The Face of the Earth," by Dr. Hertha Sollas, was completed by the publication of the fourth volume. It is a work which takes an exceptionally comprehensive view of the superficial features of the globe and brings them by remarkable synthesis into natural relationship. The work marks an epoch in geological literature.-Under the title of "Causal Geology," a work of much originality has been published by Prof. Schwarz, a well-known geologist in South Africa. He holds that the earth must be a solid mass, without a heated interior. Volcanic phenomena are explained as resulting mostly from the heat developed by friction, consequent on internal movement of the rocks.