The question of the provision of a new naval base near Stockholm has been much discussed, and in the autumn of 1909 a Parliamentary Defence Commission recommended the creation of a naval station at Kaknaes at a cost of £1,880,000 of which £1,410,000 was for new works. The new base would be much nearer to the capital than Carlskrona, and was recommended in view of the fortification of the Aland Islands by Russia.

The principal dockyards in Sweden are situated as follows:-Karlskrona: three dry docks, one able to take the new cruiser Fylgia, two take any other Swedish ship; three smaller. Stockholm: one dock takes any Swedish vessel.

Industries, Statistics, and
Diplomatic.

Local affairs are administered through prefects nominated by the King and representative bodies elected in the 24 governments, and the communes or municipalities, into which the country is divided and subdivided. The larger towns, Stockholm, Göteborg, Malmö, Norrköping, and Gefle, have separate municipal councils. The State religion is Lutheran; all others, except the Jesuits, are tolerated. Elementary education is compulsory, free, and well organised. The principal papers are the Svenska Dagblad, Stockholms Dagblad, Aftonblad, and Dagens Nyheter. The chief exports are timber. The iron mines are very important and are making much progress; while there are large timber and woodwork industries, butter, metals, minerals, etc. The forest area is about 80,000 sq. miles. There were at the end of 1908, 2694 miles of State railways, and 5382 of standard gauge and 2760 of narrow gauge belonging to private companies, A train-ferry service between Trelleborg in Sweden and Sasnitch in Prussia was inaugurated in 1909, thus opening a direct train service between Stockholm, Gothenburg, Christiania, and Berlin.

Area, 172,876 sq. m.; estimated pop., 1907, 5.337,055. The capital, Stockholm, has a pop. of 332,738. Revenue and expenditure, 1910 (estimated), £12,674,000; 1911 (estimated), £12,745,000 debt, 1909, £28,631,930 (contracted almost entirely for the construction of railways). Imports, 1907, £37,436,000; exports, 1907, £20,148,000.

and executive authority in two chambers-viz. (1) a State Council of 44 members, chosen two for each canton and one for each half-canton for three years; and (2) a National Council of 167 delegates of the Swiss people (of whom 29 are sent by Berne and 22 by Zurich), chosen also for three years, directly by manhood suffrage, one deputy for every 20,000 of the population. The united chambers form the Federal Assembly, to which is confided the supreme government. The executive authority is deputed to a Federal Council of seven members, elected for three years by the Assembly, the president and vice-president of which are elected annually, and are the first magistrates of the republic. The Council sits at Berne, which is the headquarters of the Federal administration.

The principles of the Referendum and of the Initiative are in force. By the former, if a petition is presented by 30,000 citizens for the alteration or revocation of a measure passed by the Legislature, or 8 cantons demand it, the law must be referred to the direct vote of the nation. The latter signifies the right of any 50,000 citizens to demand a direct popular vote on any constitutional question. The Federal Government can alone contract treaties or declare war. The army, postal system, finance and customs, are also under its control. Civil and criminal law, justice, police, public works, and schools are all left under the juris diction of the cantonal authorities, while labour legislation may be initiated either by the Confederation or by the cantons. The neutrality of the country is guaranteed by the Treaty of Vienna, 1815, as indispensable to the general interest of Europe.

The Federal Military Department was reorganised under a law promulgated Jan. 25th, 1910, and includes the chancellory, the staff, and 12 sections dealing severally with the various arms and services. The Swiss militia system has been a good deal discussed, owing to the fact that the National Service League (see p. 211) bases its proposals on the Swiss system, and that the British Territorial Army presents a general resemblance to the Swiss model, but without compulsion. The Federal forces do not constitute a standing army, the principle being that of a militia, and the liability to serve thirteen years in the Auszug or Elite, twelve in the Landwehr, and six in the Landsturm. But Ministry: Premier, Admiral Lindman, preliminary to all this is gymnastic and other G.C.V.O.-Foreign Affairs, Count Taube.-training in schools, and subsequently in cadet War, Major-Gen. M. O. Malm.-Justice, M. Albert Petersson.-Marine, Commodore Count C. A. Ehrensvärd. - Interior, Count H. E. G. Hamilton. - Finance, M. Swartz. - Public Worship, Dr. P. E. Lindström.-Agriculture, M. S. O. Nylander. Without portfolio, M. Hederstierna and K. H. von Sydon.

Minister in London, Count H. Wrangel, G.C.V.O., 73, Portland Place, W.- Consul General, D. Danielsson, 10, Lloyd's Avenue, E.C.

British Minister at Stockholm, Sir C. A. Spring Rice, G.C.V.O., K.C.M.G.

British Consuls, H. M. Villiers, M.V.O. (Stockholm); J. Duff (Gothenburg).

SWITZERLAND.

corps, especially designed to prepare youths for military service, and fit them to take rapid advantage of the training. During the thirteen years in the Auszug (ten for the cavalry) the aggregate service is 141 days in the Infantry, 146 in the Engineers, 160 in the Cavalry, and 163 in the Artillery. The recruit course in the first year provided under a new law (submitted to the referendum on Nov. 3rd, 1907) has been increased to 92 days for the Cavalry, 77 days for the Artillery, and 67 days for the Infantry, with repetition courses of 13 days every year instead of every second year, while the service in the Landsturm is reduced.

The total military strength consists of: Auszug (20 to 32 years of age): 96 battalions of Infantry, 8 battalions of Rifles, 24 squadrons of Dragoons, 48 field batteries of 6 guns, 2 mountain batteries, 10 position batteries, and 12 companies of Light Horse. Landwehr (32 to 44 years of age): 96 battalions of Infantry, 8 bat. talions of Rifles, 24 squadrons of Dragoons, 8

Switzerland is a Confederation of nineteen entire and six half cantons, which have been united for Federal purposes since 1848. The constitution of '74 vests supreme legislative

SWITZERLAND TURKEY.

TURKEY ARMY, NAVY.

quick-firing gun. A military council has been called into existence, and the organisation of an Army Staff taken in hand. In June 1910 Mahmud-Shevket Pasha demanded an extraordinary vote of £T4,800,000. He proposes to purchase 66,000 rifles, 100 field guns, 38 mountain guns, and ammunition, equipment of many kinds, and to improve the fortifications.

The empire is divided into seven army corps districts - Constantinople, Adrianople, Salonika, Erzingjan, Damascus, Baghdad, and Sana'a; and there are two independent divisions respectively at Medina and Tripoli. By the existing recruiting law all Mussulmans are liable to military service. Christians and certain sects have paid an exemption tax. The nomad Arabs, although liable to service by law, furnish no recruits, and many Kurds evade service. The conscription therefore falls somewhat heavily on the Osmanlis, or Turks proper; but under the Constitution of July 24th, 1903, it is intended to make service universal. The effective is at present much below the establishment, many being dispensed.

Rear-Admiral Sir Douglas Austin Gamble, who was lent by the British Admiralty in December 1908 to the Turkish Government to superintend the reorganisation of the Turkish Navy, resigned on the ground of ill-health in January, 1910, and was succeeded by Rear-Admiral Hugh P. Williams, who left England at the end of April. Five other British naval officers, Lieutenants A. P. Le C. Faught, F. L. Tottenham, A. L. Gwynne, Engineer - Commander L. R. Croisdale, and Assistant-Paymaster R. F. Durman had been appointed to assist Sir Douglas Gamble, and Rear-Admiral Williams made no change in this staff on succeeding the former at Constantinople.

In August 1910 the Turkish Government purchased the German battleships Kurfurst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg for the sum of £900,000, and on arriving at Constantinople in September the vessels were renamed Torgatt Reiss and Haireddin Barbarossa. Both vessels were launched in 1891. Turkey also purchased from Germany earlier in the year the four new destroyers numbered S. 165 to The men liable to service are divided into-S. 168, which boats were renamed Sadikjar-i(1) Nizam, or regular army, and its reserve; Millet, Muavenet-i-Millet, Mahabet-i-Watan, (2) Redif, corresponding to a Landwehr; and and Nuhum-i-Hamijet. The cost of purchase (3) Mustahfiz, or Landsturm, consisting of over was £T400,000, or about £95,000 per vessel. 60 Ilaveh battalions, mostly skeleton forma- The naval programme elaborated by Sir tions, for the second-class Redif. Liability to Douglas Gamble, which the Cabinet adopted service is as follows: with colours of the Nizam, on Feb. 6th, 1910, provides for the construction three years; in the Reserve of the Nizam, six of two battleships, three cruisers, and ten years; in the Redif, nine years; and in the destroyers, but contracts for its execution had Mustahfiz, two years. The Nizam has 22 divi- not been entered into in Nov. 1910. Naval sions with 357 battalions, 20 cavalry brigades bases for the growing needs of the fleet were with 207 squadrons, and 16 artillery brigades projected at Salonica and Smyrna, with 271 batteries. The First Redif has 24 intantry divisions with 384 battalions and 316 squadrons; and the Second Redif to divisions with 158 battalions. The Redif has as yet no artillery. There are 155 companies of siege and fortress artillery. The irregular "Hamidieh" Cavalry is raised among the Kurds, and has about 2:0 squadrons.

The Nizam troops probably number 260,000, with 120,000 as a reserve, and the Redif, in two classes, with the Mustahfiz, probably bring up the total to well over 1,000,000; but of these somewhere between one quarter and a half may be eliminated as of little fighting value, except as reinforcements in a long campaign, The troops, though massed to the number of about 42,000 at Mustafa Pasha, Adrianople, and Kirk-Kilisse, are widely distributed throughout the Empire, and very largely in Asia Minor. Much of the best of the army, however, is in European Turkey, and in the defensive works of the Chatalja Lines.

The Navy.

There are 31,000 officers and men in the Navy, and 9000 marines. The officers are divided as follows: 2 admirals, 9 vice-admirals, 16 rearadmirals, 30 captains, 90 commanders, 300 lieutenant-commanders, 250 lieutenants and 200 sub-lieutenants.

In October 1910 a party of six Turkish officers, accompanied by Lieut. Faught, left for England to undergo a course of study, and it was announced that nineteen other officers would follow them for a similar purpose.

Administration, Religion, etc,

The Koran is a legal and theological code upon which the fundamental laws of the empire are based. The Grand Vizier and the Sheik-ul-Islam are appointed by the Sultan, the latter with the nominal concurrence of the Ulema or general body of lawyers and theologians, over which the Sheik-ul-Islam, as head of the Church, presides. The Grand Vizier, is assisted by the Medjliss-i-Hass or Cabinet of Ministers.

For administrative purposes the empire is divided into vilayets or governments, subdivided further into provinces (sanjaks), districts (kazas), sub-districts (nahiés), and communities (kariés). These are governed by Valis, or Governors-General, with provincial councils, and by subordinate officials. Foreigners living in Turkey are amenable only to their respective Consular tribunals, except in cases where Turkish subjects are concerned, which come before the Turkish courts, or when the case relates to landed property owned by foreigners, when it comes before a Turkish civil court. Mohammedanism is the religion of only about half the population in European Turkey, though it is professed by the great majority of the inhabitants of Turkey in Asia. Mohammedan priests number 11,600, and are subject to the Sheik-ul Islam, but their offices are hereditary. The Government recognises the ecclesiastical heads of the Ronian, Greek, Armenian, Bulgarian, and other

Churches, however. Education is given in about 36,000 schools of different kinds, containing about 1,350,000 scholars, and is free.

JH. Monahan (Jedda), H. Z. Longworth (Trebizond), H. E. Satow (Jerusalem), G. P. Devey (Damascus), and P. J. C. McGregor (Erzeroum).

History in 1910.

· Industries and Trade. Agriculture is largely carried on, but in very primitive fashion, and is greatly hampered The decision of the Government to conclude by the tithes and taxes levied on agricultural | an agreement for the fusion of the Euphrates produce, even when exported from one province to another. The land is largely held direct from the Crown. There is a Government Agricultural Bank, with a capital of £2,629,600, which advances money to farmers on the security of real property. Tobacco, cereals, cotton, coffee, wine, silk and fruits are the chief productions. There are several Jewish and German agricultural colonies in Palestine. The provinces in Asia abound in minerals, coal, borax, manganese, chrome, silver-lead, etc., which, however, are little worked. Silk, cotton, and woollen fabrics are made at Damascus. All goods imported are taxed 11% ad valorem, except tobacco and salt. There are now 3763 miles of railway open. A large scheme of public works-railways, harbours, irrigations, etc.-has been presented to Parliament by the Government. The capital is Constantinople, with a population of about 1,125,000. Other chief towns are Damascus (250,000), Smyrna (201,000), Baghdad (145,000), Aleppo (127,150), Beirout (119,000), Salonica (105,000), and Adrianople (81,000).

Statistics and Diplomatic.

The area of Turkey, without the states nominally subject to it, is estimated at 1,111,741 sq. miles; and the total population at about 30,000,000. The area of Turkey in Europe is 65,350 sq. m., pop. 6,130,000; in Asia Minor, 193,540 sq. m., pop. 9,090,000; Armenia and Kurdistan, 72,000 sq. m., pop. 2,500,000 Mesopotamia, 143,250 sq. m., pop. 1,400,000; Syria, 114,530 sq. m., pop. 2,890,400; in Arabia, 170,300 sq. m., pop. 1,050,000; in Africa, 400,000 sq. m., pop. 1,000,000. Revenue, 1909-10, £24,851,000. Expenditure, 1909.10, 29,063,250. Public debt, Sept. 1909, 109,087,000. Imports, 1906, £28,229,000; exports, 1906, £17.705,000.

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Ministry. Grand Vizier, Hakki Pasha.Sheik-ul-Islam, Mussa Kiazim Effendi. Interior, Talaat Bey.-Foreign Affairs, kifaat Pasha. War, Mahmud Shevket Pasha.President Council of State, Raif Pasha.Finance, Djavid Bey. Evkaf, Sherif Ali Haidar.-Marine, Salih Pasha.-Agriculture, Aristide Pasha. - Commerce and Works, M. Haladjian. Education, Emrullah Effendi, Mines and Forests, Prince Mavrogordato. Justice, Nazim Pasha,

Ambassador in London, Tewfik Pasha, 69, Portland Place, W.-Consul-General, Refet Bey, 29, Mincing Lane, E.C.

British Ambassador at Constantinople, Right Hon. Sir Gerard Lowther, K.C.M.G., C.B.Councillor, C. M. Marling, C. M.G.-Commercial Attaché, E. Weakley, C.M.G.

Judge of Supreme Consular Court, R. P. B. Cator; Assistant Judge, G. B. Piggott.

and Tigris Steam Navigation Company, Ltd., hetter known as the Lynch Company, with the Ottoman Hamidieh Company produced a political crisis in December. It was contended by the critics of the Government that the agreement should be submitted to the Chamber for ratification, and a resolution to this effect was carried on Dec. 12th by a large majority. The Government maintained its view that the conent of the Chamber was not necessary, since the agreement involved no expenditure on the part of the State, and announced its intention of resigning office if the adverse resolution was maintained. On second thoughts the Chamber changed its mind, and the day after its vote of censure it passed a motion of confidence by 168 votes to 8. A fortnight later, however, Hilmi Pasha resigned, nominally "for reasons of health," but partly, it was believed, owing to the unsympathetic attitude of the bloc commanded by the Committee of Union of Progress. His place was taken by Hakki Bey, the composition of whose Cabinet was announced on Jan. 12th. The new Grand Vizier made a statement of his policy in the Chamber on Jan. 24th, and received a vote of confidence.

The Budget, as finally modified by the Parliamentary Commission and passed by the Chamber on June 25th, estimated the expenditure at LT35,693,000 and the revenue at T26,015,00-a deficit of £59,678,000, which would probably be increased to more than £10,500,000 by special credits for the pensior. fund, the payment of debts incurred by Abdul Hamid, and indemnities to officials. On the other hand, the Minister of Finance believed that the revenue would probably show an increase of £1,500,000, while about £T2,000,000 of expenditure would remain undisbursed, which with a reserve of £12,000,000 from the previous year would reduce the deficit to about £5,000,000.

A serious rising, the causes of which were complicated and obscure, took place in Albania in the spring, and called for military measures upon a considerable scale. An expedition under Shevket Torgut Pasha reduced the rebels to submission after some stubborn fighting in which many lives were lost on both sides.

Later in the year a revolt among the Druses in the Hauran was met by an expedition consisting of twenty-six battalions of infantry and eight batteries of artillery.

The Chiragan Palace, in which the Turkish Parliament met, was destroyed by an accidental fire on Jan. 19th. The Chamber accepted the offer of Princess Nazimeh, daughter of the late Sultan Abdul Aziz, to give to the nation for a new Parliament House her palace at Ortakeui on the Bosphorus.

British Consuls-General, Lt.-Col. J. Ramsay In July Dr. Riza Nur, a deputy and ex-member (Baghdad), H.A Cumberbatch, C. M.G.(Beirout), of the Committee of Union and Progress, was H. D. Barnham, C.M.G. (Smyrna), H. H. Lamb arrested with a number of other persons on a (Salonica), and H. C. A. Eyres (Constantinople). charge of complicity in a plot to overthrow the British Consuls, A. T. Waugh (Constanti Government. After a preliminary inquiry, Dr. nople), R. A. Fontana (Aleppo), F. E. Crow Riza Nur and fifty of his alleged accomplices (Basra), Major L. R. Samson (Adrianople), | were brought up for trial by court-martial.