Obs. The chief glaciers flowing from the 1. Monte Rosa Centre, are the Græner, Ferpècle, Zinal, and Findelen. 2. Finsteraarhorn Centre, are the Aletsch, Viesch, Unteraar, and Tschingel. 3. Bernina Centre, are the Mortiratch, and Forno. CLIMATE.-Owing to its great elevation above the level of the sea, its inland position, and its countless snow clad summits, the climate of Switzerland, generally, is more rigorous than that of less mountainous countries in the same latitudes. At the same time it is characterised by infinite variety, from the eternal Arctic severity which reigns in the high Alps, to the genial and sunny temperateness of the low sheltered valleys which matures maize, vines, figs, olives, and tobacco. Its mean annual temperature is 4° Fahr. lower than that of England. PRODUCTIONS.-The most characteristic Productions of Switzerland are the chamois, marmot, and St. Bernard spaniels; pinetimber, and Alpine plants-gentians, rhododendrons, saxifrages, lichens, mosses, &c. Obs. The ibex, bear, lynx, and stein-bock are not yet extinct; and the golden eagle, and bearded vulture are still sometimes seen. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.-In 1877 the People numbered 2,776,035, and consisted chiefly of Swiss, who are Teutons of the High German stock, of French, and Italians. German is the Language of the majority of the inhabitants in sixteen cantons, French in four, and Italian in two. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. POLITICAL DIVISIONS.—The Republic of Switzerland consists of a United Confederacy of 25 Cantons. These with their capitals are given in the following table : CANTONS. CAPITALS. CANTONS. CAPITALS. I. 12 CANTONS IN E. SWITZERLAND.|| II. 13 CANTONS IN W. SWITZERLAND. Schaffhausen. 13. Aargau (Argovie).. 14. Lucerne Aarau. Lucerne. 15. Soleure (Solothurn) Soleure. 5. Appenzell, Exterior 6. Appenzell, Interior 7. Zug... 8. Schwyz. 9. Glarus. 10. Uri Zug. Schwyz. 19. Unterwalden, Upper 20. Unterwalden, Lower 11. Grisons (Graubünden) 12. Tessin (Ticino) Coire (Chur). 23. Geneva (Genf) 24. Friburg Genera. Friburg. 25. Neuchâtel (Neuenburg). Neuchâtel. NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The five most populous towns are Geneva (46,783), Zurich (21,199), Basle (44,834), Bern (36,000), Lausanne (26,520). Obs. Bern, the federal capital of Switzerland, is surrounded by the Aar, on three sides. It is the seat of the federal government and the residence of the representatives of foreign powers. It possesses an arsenal, a mint, an observatory, a botanical garden, a rich library, a museum, and many schools and other educational institutions; a Hotel de Ville, a new federal palace, and a cathedral, which is famous for its stained glass windows, its sculptures, and its grand organ. It is also an important manufacturing centre. The chief Industrial Centres are Geneva (horlogerie, jewelry, cutlery, musical instruments, &c.), Bern (firearms, leather, paper, mathematical instruments, &c.), Basle (silk ribands, cotton stuffs, gloves, &c.), Zurich (silk and cotton fabrics, and machinery), Friburg, St. Gall, and Lausanne. Other notable places are Lucerne, Interlaken, Thun, and Brienz, famous for the natural beauties of their situations; Pfeffers, Leuk, and St. Moritz, celebrated watering-places; Grindelwald, and Zermatt, renowned for their glacier and mountain scenery; Morgarten, Sempach, Nafels, and Laupen, battlefields, the scenes of Swiss victories over the Austrians, at various times, between 1315 and 1399. INDUSTRIES.-The characteristic industries of Switzerland are Grazing, Agriculture, and the Manufacture of watches, clocks, silk ribands, and silk and cotton stuffs. Obs. The commerce consists mainly of a transit trade with France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. COMMUNICATIONS.-Switzerland possesses a complete system of High-Roads, about 1,470 m. of Railway, and 10,000 m. of Telegraph wires; also, most of the great lakes are traversed by Steamers. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government is a United Confederacy, the executive and legislative power being vested in Parliament, which consists of a State Council, and a National Council. About 60 per cent. of the people belong to the Calvinistic Church, and the remainder are Roman Catholics, or Jews. Education is compulsory and the children of the poor are educated at the expense of the State. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Latitude. Between 47° 10' and 55° 40′ N. Longitude. Between 5° 50' and 23° E. Area. 208,368 sq. m. (exclusive of area of lakes). POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Germany lies in the W. of Central Europe. It is bounded on the N. by the North Sea, Denmark, the Baltic, and Russia. E. by Russia and Austria. S. by Austria and Switzerland. W. by France, Belgium, and Holland. COASTS.-The coast-line of Germany is all on her N. border and skirts the North Sea and the Baltic. The North Sea coast is so low that it has in many places to be protected by dykes. The chief coast features are the Capes, Arcona N.E. of Rügen Island, Rixhöft Head, and Brüster Head, at the W. and E. extremities of the Gulf of Danzig. Inlets, Jahde, the estuaries of the Weser, and Elbe, belonging to the North Sea; Kiel Bay, the Gulf of Lubeck, and Gulf of Danzig, in the Baltic. ISLANDS. The chief islands off the German coasts are Rügen, Femern, and Alsen in the Baltic; the N. Frisian Islands, and Heligoland in the North Sea. Obs. 1. Heligoland, though geographically belonging to Germany, has been politically a possession of Great Britain since A.D. 1814. The island is only about 4,000 yards in circumference, and is being slowly diminished by the action of the sea. Its inhabitants are Frisians who follow seafaring pursuits. SURFACE.-North Germany is flat and but slightly elevated above the level of the sea. The W., Central, and S. districts are mountainous, or hilly, and form an extensive table-land of from 1,500 to 2,000 ft. high. The chief surface features are the 1. Mountains, of which there are two principal systems, viz. a. The Bavarian Alps, which cover the greater part of the S. frontiers of the empire, and have their highest point in Zugspitz (9,716 ft.), at the source of the river Iser. b. A sinuous chain, or rather an irregular succession of wooded heights of moderate elevation, which runs from the valley of the Rhine on the W. to the E. frontiers of the realm, holding a course about midway between the N. shores and the Alps, and separating the maritime basin of the North and Baltic Seas from the inner basin of the Danube. The chain is not designated by any general appellation, but is marked by various names in the various localities through which it runs. Its chief links are a. On the W., Taunus, Vogelsberg, Rhöngebirge,1 Thuringer Wald,1 and Fichtelgebirge. b. On the E., the Erzgebirge, Riesengebirge or Giant Mountains, and the Sudetes, which all lie on the S.E. frontier between the German and Austrian Empires. c. The Böhmer Wald or Bohemian Mountains, which run from the Fichtelgebirge towards the S.E., between Germany and Bohemia, and form the water-parting between the Valleys of the Elbe and Danube. d. The Franconian Jura and the Swabian Jura, parts of a range running S. W. from the Fichtelgebirge to the sources of the Danube. e. The Schwarz Wald, or Mountains of the Black Forest, which run N. and S. from the W. extremity of the Swabian Jura, and which also form the connecting link between the great Alpine barrier and the Mountains of the Centre. 2. The Plateaux, of which the chief one is The Bavarian Tableland, which occupies the region between the central range and the Alps, and runs from the Böhmer Wald to the Schwarz Wald. It has a general elevation of from 1,000 to 1,300 ft., and is traversed from W. to E. by the Danube. 3. The Plains, the most important being The German Plain, which lies between the central mountains and the sea on the N. It is a low, dreary, and monotonous region in which tracts of heather, great sandy wastes, marshes, and bogs alternate with extensive and valuable pastures, in which vast herds of cattle are reared and fed. Berlin, the metropolis of the empire, is situated on this plain. 1 The term Gebirge (= Mountain), and Wald (= Forest), are often used synonymously in all German countries. DRAINAGE. The copious drainage of the German Empire is carried down a N.W. slope into the Baltic Sea, and German Ocean, respectively; and down a S.E. slope to the Black Sea. The chief drainage agents are the 1. Rivers, which flow down the a. N. Western Slope, into the North Sea, viz, the Rhine, Ems, Weser, and Elbe. b. N. Western Slope, into the Baltic, viz., the Oder, Vistula, and Niemen. c. S. Eastern Slope, into the Black Sea, viz., the Danube. Obs. 1. The Rhine (see pp. 20, 63, 85), from Basle to Cleves, belongs entirely to Germany. This portion is about 370 m. long, and includes the "middle" and part of the "lower" Rhine, and most of the picturesque and romantic scenery for which the banks of that river are celebrated. Its German tributaries are the Neckar, Main, Lahn, and Ruhr, on the right bank; and the Moselle, on the left bank. The Rhine passes the towns of Strasburg, Mannheim, Mainz, Bingen, Coblenz, Bonn, Cologne, &c. Obs. 2. The Weser is formed by the junction of the Werra, and Fulda, and rises in the Thüringian Forest, and the Rhöngebirge. It flows, generally, N., and after a course of 250 m. falls into the North Sea. Its chief tributary is the Aller, which it receives on its right bank. Obs. 3. Elbe. See p. 20. Obs. 4. The Oder rises in the Sudetes, and flows with a general N.W. and W. course of 553 m. into the Baltic. It forms numerous extensive marshes in the upper portion of its middle course, and in several parts requires dyking. Its principal tributaries are the Bartsch, and Warta on the right bank; and the Bober, and Neisse on the left bank. Obs. 5. Vistula. See p. 20. Obs. 6. Niemen or Memel, which belongs chiefly to Russia. See p. 118. Obs. 7. The Danube (see p. 21), before leaving Germany, receives the tribu taries Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn, on the right bank; and the Altmuhl, and Nab on the left bank. 2. Lakes. Germany possesses many Lakes; but none of them are of any great size or beauty. The chief are the Chiem See, Würm See, and Ammer Sea, which are all in Bavaria. CLIMATE.-The climate of Germany is healthy and bracing. It varies, however, with the aspect of the country. The low plains of the N. are cold, and subject to long winters; the uplands enjoy an equable and genial temperature and a dry atmosphere; while extremes of cold and heat prevail on the mountains and in the valleys respectively. PRODUCTIONS.-These are of the same character, generally, as those of the other countries of Central Europe. Those, however, which are most characteristic of the country are wool, wines, zinc, salt, amber, and medicinal waters. Obs. The wines of the Rhine, Moselle, and Saxony are famous. Amber, the most remarkable of the German productions, has the chief source of its supply on the Baltic coasts of Prussia. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.—At the Census of 1875 the Population numbered 42,727,360, of whom nearly 38 millions are Germans, and 2 millions, Poles. The Language of the people and of literature is German. Obs. The non-German peoples-the Poles, Lithuanians, Wends, Danes, Walloons, &c.-speak also their own languages among themselves. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. ניי THE grand confederation termed "The German Empire" is composed of 25" States" and 1 "Reichsland." The "States" comprise 4 Kingdoms, 6 Grand Duchies, 5 Duchies, 7 Principalities, and 3 Free Towns. These, with their capitals, are given in the table :— Obs. The Kingdoms, and the Grand Duchy of Baden are described separately in the following pages. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The sovereign power of this great confederation is exercised by the Emperor, the Federal Council, (consisting of 59 members who represent the States of the Empire), and the Federal Diet (consisting of 397 members who are popularly elected). About three-fifths of the people are Protestants of the Lutheran and Calvinistic persuasions; the rest are Roman Catholics. Education is general and compulsory throughout the Empire. PRUSSIA. GENERAL FACTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Longitude. Between 6° and 23° E. Area. 134,138 sq. m. POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Prussia lies in the N.W. of Central Europe. It is bounded on the N. by the North Sea, Denmark, the Baltic, and Russia. E. by Russia. S. by 1 Reichsland "Imperial territory or district." |