Obs. Paris, the metropolis of France, is the most beautiful and, next to London, the largest city in Europe. It stands on both banks of the Seine, and is traversed in every direction by grand streets, which are planted with trees, and called boulevards. In the culture of arts, sciences, and letters, Paris is unrivalled. It is remarkable also for the number and variety of its public monuments, and for the charming parks and promenades in its immediate vicinity.

The five naval ports of France are, Cherbourg, opposite Southampton, Brest, opposite Plymouth, Lorient, and Rochefort, on the W. coast; and Toulon, on the Mediterranean coast.

The ten chief commercial ports are Marseilles, Havre, Bordeaux, Nantes, Rouen, Dunkirk, Cette, Calais, Dieppe, and Boulogne.

The chief industrial centres are Paris (jewelry, horlogerie, printing, &c., &c.), Lyons (silks, gold and silver lace, chemicals, &c.), Marseilles (soap, and sugar-refining), Bordeaux (cottons, woollens, chemicals, &c.), Lille (cottons, linen, lace, hosiery, sugar, &c.), Toulouse, St. Etienne, Creuzot, Anzin, Nantes, Rouen (cottons).

Other notable places are, Versailles, near Paris, the residence of the French kings of the 17th and 18th centuries. Agincourt, Crécy, Poitiers, Orléans, and Malplaquet, all intimately associated with various periods of English history. INDUSTRIES.-More than half the French people are engaged in Agricultural and Pastoral pursuits. The Manufactures comprise silks, cottons, woollens, linen, hosiery, jewelry, horlogerie, hardware, arms, books, cutlery, machinery, china, paper, sugar, soap, &c., and bid fair to rival those of England in every respect. Mining is also a very important branch of French industry. The chief exports are wine, fruits, corn, jewelry, spirits, silk and cotton fabrics, &c. ; the chief imports are raw silk, cotton, and linen.

COMMUNICATIONS.-France is traversed in every direction from border to border with excellent systems of Roads, Railroads, Canals, and Navigable Rivers; she has also a highly developed Telegraphic Service.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government of France is a Republic, the supreme power being vested in the National Assembly, the members of which are elected by universal suffrage. The Religion of France is Christianity, the prevailing form of it being Roman Catholicism. Education is being warmly fostered, and is rapidly becoming general.

FOREIGN POSSESSIONS.-The French possessions in Africa, Asia, America, and Oceania are in area nearly twice as large as continental France, and embrace a population of more than six millions. They are

1. COLONIES IN

a. Africa, viz., Algeria, Senegal Settlements, the islands Réunion or Bourbon, Mayotte, Nossi-Bé, and Ste. Marie.

b. Asia, viz. (1) Indian Possessions, as Pondicherry, Karikal, Mahé, Yanaon, and Chandarnagar-(2). French Cochin-China.

c. America-viz., Guiana or Cayenne, Guadeloupe and Dependencies, Martinique St. Pierre, and Miguelon.

d. Oceania-viz., New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, and Marquesas Islands.

2. PROTECTORATES IN

a. Asia-viz., The Kingdom of Kambodia.

b. Oceania-viz., Tahiti and Dependencies, Toubouai, and Vavitou, Touamotou, and Gambier,

THE SPANISH PENINSULA.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 36° and 43° 48′ N. Longitude. Between 9° 30′ W. and 3° 20′ E. Area. 214,291 sq. m., of which 177,781 belongs to Spain.

POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-The Spanish Peninsula, embracing the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal, lies in the S. W. of Europe. It is bounded on the

N. by France, and the Bay of Biscay. E. by the Mediterranean. S. by the Mediterranean, the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Gulf of Cadiz. W. by the Atlantic Ocean.

COASTS.-The coasts of the Spanish peninsula are remarkably even and unbroken, not being penetrated anywhere by any single deep inlet of the sea. The most important of the

Capes, are Peñas, and Ortegal, on the N.W.; Finisterre, Roca, Espichel, and St. Vincent, on the W.; Trafalgar,1 Tarifa, and Gata, on the S.; Palos, Náo, Tortosa, and Creux, on the E.

Inlets, the Gulfs of Cadiz, and Almeria, on the S.; and the Gulf of Valencia, on the E.

Straits, that of Gibraltar, between Europe and Africa, is the chief.

ISLANDS.-The Baleares, in the Mediterranean, the Canary Isles, in the Atlantic, belonging to Spain: the Azores, and the Madeira Isles, in the Atlantic, belonging to Portugal, are the principal islands of this peninsula.

Obs. 1. The Balearic Isles (so called from the skill of the natives in slinging), are a group which lies from 75 to 200 m. off the E. coast of the Peninsula. Their aggregate area is 1860 sq. m., their population 288,747. Their chief productions consist of corn, fruit, and salt. They are 5 in number, viz., Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, Formentara, and Cabrera, and constitute a province of Spain. Their chief town is Palma, on the S. W. coast of Majorca.

Obs. 2. The Canary Isles (Dog Islands, so called because when discovered they abounded in wild dogs) are a group of small islands and islets lying 60 m. off the W. coast of Africa. Their aggregate area is 2,807 sq. m., and their population 283,402. They are volcanic and mountainous, rising, in the "Pico de Teyde," 2 in the island Teneriffe, to 12,185 ft. above the level of the sea. The chief productions are wine, oil, corn, and fruits of all kinds. The islands, of which Teneriffe and Gran Canaria are the largest, form a province of Spain. Gran Palmas, the capital of the province, is on the N. E. side of Gran Canaria.

Obs. 3. The Azores are a group of 9 islands lying 800 m. W. of Portugal. Their total area is 922 sq. m., population 261,746. They are of volcanic origin and very subject to earthquakes. The productions are grain of all kinds, wines, bananas, oranges, and other tropical and subtropical fruits of the best quality. The people are a mixture of Portuguese and Negroes. The islands are St. Mary, St. Michael, Terceira, Graciosa, St. Jorge, Pico, Fayal, Flores, and Corvo; they form a colonial government and have for their capital, Angra, in Terceira.

Obs. 4. The Madeira Isles form a small archipelago which lies 660 m, S.W. off the coast of Portugal. Their united area is 314 sq. m., their population 121,753. The islands are of volcanic formation, mountainous, and well watered. The principal productions are wine, fruits, coffee, arrowroot, and sugar-cane. The group, of which Madeira and Porto Santo are the chief islands, constitutes a province of Portugal, with Funchal for its capital.

1 Nelson gained his decisive victory over the French and Spanish fleets combined, and met with his own death (1805) near Cape Trafalgar.

2 The Pico de Teyde is the famous volcano

which is better known as "Teneriffe." It is perpetually discharging streams of hot vapour; but there has been no eruption since 1798.

SURFACE.-The Spanish peninsula, after Norway, and Switzerland, is the most mountainous region in Europe. The most important surface features are the

1. Mountains, of which there are 5 principal chains, viz.: the

a. Pyrenees, which run E. and W. between France and Spain. Their chief summit on the Spanish side is Pic Nethou (11,168 ft.).

b. Cantabrian Mountains, which are a W. prolongation of the Pyrenees with chief summit, Peña1 Vieja (8,740 ft.).

c. Castilian Mountains, which run through the middle of Spain from N.E. towards S.W. and culminate in Plaza de Almanzor (8,730 ft.).

2

d. Sierra Morena, stretching E. and W., and forming the water-parting between the rivers Guadiana and Guadalquivir. The highest point, Almenara (5,910 ft.), is near the E. extremity of the range.

e. Sierra Nevada, which lies in the S.E., and embraces Mulahacen (11,423 ft.) the loftiest summit of the Peninsula.

Obs. In addition there are the Mountains of Toledo, and the Iberian Mountains. 2. Plateaux, of which the following are the most important:

a. The Plateau of Old Castile, which lies between the Cantabrian and Castilian Mts., and is traversed by the Douro River.

b. The Plateau of New Castile, situated between the Castilian and Morena Mts. The N. portion is traversed by the Tagus, the S. by the Guadiana.

c. The Tableland of Andalucia in the S.W. of the Peninsula, which is traversed by the lower course of the Guadalquivir.

DRAINAGE.-The comparatively scanty drainage is carried down two great slopes, which incline W. towards the Atlantic, and E. towards the Mediterranean. The chief draining agents are the 1. Rivers, which flow down the

a. Western Slope, into the Atlantic Ocean, viz., The Minho, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquiver.

b. Eastern Slope, into the Mediterranean, viz., The Segura, Jucar, Guadalviar, and Ebro.

Obs. 1. The Minho, which rises among the mountains of Galicia, reaches the ocean after a S. and S. W. course of 130 m. In its lower course it forms part of the boundary between Spain and Portugal.

Obs. 2. The Douro, which rises near Mt. Urbion in Old Castile, after a W. and S.W. course of upwards of 400 m. falls into the ocean a little below Oporto. In its middle course it forms part of the boundary between Spain and Portugal. Its chief tributaries are the Pisuerga, and Esca on the right bank; the Tormes, and Agueda on the left.

Obs. 3. The Tagus, which issues from Mt. St. Juan (Sierra d'Albarracin), after a W. and S. W. course of more than 500 m. reaches the sea near Lisbon. The chief tributaries are the Henares with its affluent the Manzanares, upon which stands Madrid, and the Alagon, both on the right bank.

Obs. 4. The Guadiana, which has its sources among the W. slopes of the Albarracin Mts., flows S.W. and S. over a course of more than 500 m. and falls into the Gulf of Cadiz. This also is a frontier river between Spain and Portugal.

Obs. 5. The Guadalquivir rises in the Sierra de Cazorla Mts., and flows W. and S.W. to the Gulf of Cadiz. Its chief tributary is the Gentil, on the left bank.

Obs. 6. The Ebro rises in the Cantabrian mountains, and after a S. E. course of 539 m. falls into the sea near Cape Tortosa. Its chief tributary is the Segre on the left bank.

Obs. 7. The rivers of this peninsula are not well adapted to purposes of navigation. Their streams are rapid, their beds are encumbered with rocks and shoals, and they are subject to floods from heavy rains and melting snows.

1 Peña is the term applied in N. Spain to those | comparatively small tower-like peaks which look like edifices built on the mountain tops.

2 Sierra, and Portuguese, Serra, are terms applied to the mountain ranges of those countries,

most probably in reference to their barren summits. These terms are more commonly connected with Lat. Serra = a saw, "in allusion to the notched crests of the Spanish mountains.

CLIMATE.-The climate of the Spanish peninsula is very varied. On the N. and W. coasts it is humid and equable; in the centre it is excessively dry, and there are extremes of heat and cold; while in the S. and E. it is subtropical, tempered by delicious sea-breezes. Obs. 1. While the annual rainfall is only about 10 in. in the centre of the peninsula, and about 20 in. on the S. and E. coasts; it is 100 in. at Bilbao on the N. coast, and 118 at Coimbra on the W. coast.

PRODUCTIONS.-These are valuable and varied. The most characteristic are the Merino sheep, mules, asses, Andalucian horses, and apes; grapes, oranges, olives, nuts; cork; mercury, copper, and lead. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.-See pp. 75 and 77.

SPAIN.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.—The kingdom of Spain embraces about five-sixths of the peninsula. It is divided into 47-or, including the Balearic, and Canary Islands-into 49 Provinces, which for the most part are named after their chief towns.

Obs. As the old divisions into 13 Kingdoms and Principalities are still in use, they also are given in the following table.

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The five most populous towns of Spain are Madrid (367,284), Barcelona (215,965), Valencià (153,457), Seville (118,888), and Malaga (97,943).

Obs. Madrid, the Metropolis of Spain, lies on the little river Manzanares, at an elevation of above 2000 ft. above the sea. The city possesses some fine public buildings, chief among which are the Royal Palace, the Armoury and Museum, and the Amphitheatre. It also possesses one of the finest collections of paintings in the world. The famous "Escorial," which includes a royal palace, a monastery, and a mausoleum, lies 25 m. N. W. from Madrid.

The three chief naval ports of Spain are Ferrol, in the N.W., Cadiz, in th S.W., and Cartagena, in the S.E.

The five principal commercial ports are, Barcelona, Cadiz, Valencia, Malaga, and Cartagena.

The chief industrial centres are, Barcelona (the "Manchester of Spain"), Valencia (silks and velvets), Murcia (silks, cloths, pottery), and Seville (silks, woollen and linen cloths, arms and ordnance).

Other notable places are Granada, the magnificent old capital of the Moors, and the seat of the famous "Alhambra;" Saragossa, noted for its cathedral; Talavera, Albuera, Salamanca, Badajos, Vitoria, San Sebastian, famous for the glorious victories gained at them by the English during the Peninsular War; Corunna, the burial-place of Sir John Moore; S. Lucar, the port whence Magellan, and Palos, the port whence Columbus, sailed on their voyages of discovery; Xeres, which gives its name to the Spanish wine, Sherry; and Almaden, from which the famous quicksilver mines are named.

INDUSTRIES.—The principal industries of Spain are Grazing, Agriculture, and Mining. Manufactures are not very important. The chief exports are wine, fruits, minerals, and manufactured silks; the chief imports are foreign and colonial produce, cotton and woollen goods, machinery, and coal.

Obs. Grazing has for its chief objects, horses, sheep, and mules, which are reared in large numbers. Agriculture is principally concerned with the culture of the vine, fruits, and grain. Mining has for its chief objects mercury, and lead.

COMMUNICATIONS.--The High Roads are bad except just in the vicinity of large towns; and Water Communications are scarce. There are more than 4000 m. of Railway, and about 16,000 m. of Telegraphic wires.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government of Spain is a constitutional Monarchy; the Roman Catholic religion prevails almost exclusively, but other religions are now tolerated; Education is in a very backward state, nearly three-fourths of the people being unable to read or write.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.—In 1870 the People were estimated at nearly 17 millions who are of very mixed race, being descended from the Kelts, Romans, Goths, and Arabs, who have at successive periods ruled in the peninsula. The Roman element has, however, so dominated the others that the Spaniards are usually classed as one of the Latin Races. Their Language also belongs to the Latin family of languages.

Obs. The Basques, who occupy the four Biscayan provinces, belong to some NonAryan race, and speak a language peculiar to themselves.