DRAINAGE.-The drainage of Belgium flows down a gentle N.W. slope to the North Sea. The chief

Rivers are the

a. Maas (Meuse), of which about 115 m. flows through Belgium, and its tributaries the Ourthe, and Sambre, on the right and left banks respectively. b. Schelde-see p. 63, obs. 1,-of which 108 m. is in Belgium, and its tributaries the Rupel, and the Lys.

c. Izer, a short navigable river which falls into the sea at Nieuport.

CLIMATE.-Belgium enjoys a moderately genial climate, somewhat like our own. The summers, however, are hotter, and the winters colder than in England. The annual rainfall at Brussels is 28 in. or 3 in. less than that at London.

PRODUCTIONS. -The soil is fertile and yields large crops of rye, wheat, and oats; flax, hemp, madder, and beet-root are also largely grown. Coal, and iron are the principal minerals.

Obs. The Animals of Belgium are of the same kinds as our own; but the Belgian draught-horses are famous for their strength and beauty.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.-The Population of Belgium is 5,336,185; the Language is French.

Obs. Belgium is the most densely populated country in Europe. Many of the people speak Dutch, and many more German.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-Belgium is divided into 9 Provinces, which, with their capitals and other chief towns, are as follows—

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The six most populous towns are Brussels (164,598), Antwerp (155,820), Ghent (129,201), Liége (118,140), Bruges (44,950), and Malines (39,776).

Obs. Brussels, the metropolis of Belgium, the seat of parliament, and the residence of the king, is situated on the little river Senne. It is the chief seat of Belgian learning and industry. It is celebrated for its handsome churches, its public buildings, its parks, its art museums, its university and other seats of learning, and for its public libraries. It is a great focus of Belgian industries, and its lace and carpets are famous everywhere.

The chief ports are Antwerp, and Ostend.

The chief manufacturing centres are Ghent, Liége, Malines, and Tournay.

Other towns of note are Spa, and Chaudefontaine, watering-places; and Waterloo, Fontenoy, Oudenarde, and Ramillies, scenes of famous battles.

INDUSTRIES.-The chief Industries are Agriculture, and Pasturing; Manufactures, especially of lace, carpets, fire-arms and machinery ; and Mining, particularly of coal and iron.

COMMUNICATIONS.-The Belgian systems of Railway and Telegraphic Communication are noted for their completeness. The Macadamised roads are wide, abundant, and in excellent condition; there is also an extensive system of Water Carriage supplied by the numerous canals and navigable rivers.

GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government is a constitutional monarchy. There are two chambers elected by the people, viz., the Senate, and the Chamber of Representatives. The Religion is chiefly Roman Catholic, but all religions are tolerated. Education is neither compulsory, nor generally diffused among the people, but is now advancing under the fostering care of the State.

FRANCE.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 42° 20′ and 51° 5′ N. Longitude. Between 4° 48′ W. and 7° 40′ E. Area. 204,208 sq. m.

POSITION AND BOUNDARIES. -France ("La France " = the country of the Franks) lies in the W. of Europe. It is bounded on the

N. by the Strait of Dover, Belgium, and Germany. E. by Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. S. by the Mediterranean and the Pyrenees. W. by the Bay of Biscay. N.W. by the English Channel, and the Strait of Dover.

COASTS.-The French coasts are bold, rocky, and much indented on the N.W.; elsewhere they are, for the most part, low and even. Of the

1. Capes, the most remarkable are Gris Nez, near the N.W. corner, La Hogue, La Hague, St. Mathieu, Raz, and Penmark on the two N.W. peninsulas. 2. Inlets, the chief are the Gulf of the Seine, and Gulf of St. Malo, which wash, respectively, the shores of the N.W. peninsulas; the Bay of Biscay, on the S.W., and the Gulf of the Lion on the S.E.

ISLAND. The chief island belonging to France s Corsica.

Obs. 1. Corsica, the most beautiful island in the Mediterranean, lies about 112 m. S.E. of the mainland, and forms a province of France, which has for its chief town Ajaccio, the birthplace of Napoleon I.

Obs. 2. The Channel Islands-Alderney, 10 m. W. of Cape La Hague, and famous for its breed of small cows; Guernsey, 30 m. W. of the coast of Normandy, also celebrated for its excellent breed of cows; and Jersey, the largest of these islands, which lies 15 m. W. of the coast of Normandy, and is noted for its fruit

and cattle-though belonging geographically to France, have politically formed part of the British possessions since the Norman Conquest.

Obs. 3. The other principal islands are Ouessant (Ushant), Belle Isle, Noirmoutier, Yeu, Ré, and Oléron in the Bay of Biscay.

SURFACE.-Extensive plains bounded by mountains, or hills, form the characteristic aspect of France. The most notable surface features are the

1. Mountains, of which there are six principal chains, viz.—

a. The Pyrenees, between France and Spain. Their highest summit on the French side is Vignemale (10,791 ft.)

b. The Alps, between France and Italy. Their loftiest peak is Mont Blanc (15,784 ft.). See pp. 18 and 19.

c. The Cevennes, W. of, and parallel with the Alps. Their highest point is Mont Mézen (5,755 ft.).

d. The Mountains of Auvergne, a branch of the Cevennes, which culminate in the Puy de Sancy (6,186 ft.).

e. The Jura Mountains, between France and Switzerland. Their culminating point is the Crêt de la Neige (5,656 ft.).

f. The Vosges, on the E. frontier, between France and Germany, with the Ballon de Guebwiller (4,694 ft.) for chief summit.

2. Plateaux, the most important of which are the

a. Central Plateau, which lies between the upper waters of the Garonne and the Loire. It is an extensive volcanic region, which embraces many mountain ranges, and includes much scenery of a wild and picturesque description.

b. Plateau of Langres, a rugged district in the N.E. between the head waters of the Seine and Saône, which is characterised by its alternations of forests and stony tracts.

3. Plains, of which the chief are the

a. Plain of Orleans and Picardy, which comprises the lower valley of the Seine, and part of the middle valley of the Loire. It is a region of great fertility, which produces much corn.

b. Landes, which consist of a great triangular waste of black and red sand, stretching N. from the Adour to the Gironde, and E. from the Bay of Biscay to the cultivated heights of Lot-et-Garonne. Heath, furze, and stunted broom are its characteristic products, while the general aspect of the plain is dreary and monotonous in the extreme.

Obs. There are also the Plains of Paris, in the N. part of the Middle Valley of the Seine, of Poitou and Touraine, in the S. part of the lower valley of the Loire, and of Gascogne and Guienne, in the lower valley of the Gironde, one of the chief wheat and wine growing districts in France.

DRAINAGE.-France is well watered, and sends her copious drainage down four slopes which incline, respectively, towards the North Sea, the English Channel, the Bay of Biscay, and the Mediterranean. The chief drainage agents are

1. The Rivers which flow down the

a. Northern Slope, into the North Sea, viz., the Moselle, Meuse (Maas), and Escaut (Schelde, p. 63).

b. North Western Slope, into the English Channel, viz., the Somme, and Seine.

c. Western Slope, into the Bay of Biscay, viz., the Loire, Charente, Dordogne, Garonne, Gironde, and Adour.

d. Southern Slope, into the Mediterranean, viz., the Rhône (p. 21), Aude, Herault, and Var.

Obs. 1. The Seine, which rises near Mt. Tasselot (Dep. Côte-d'Or), follows a sinuous N.W. course, passes Paris, and Rouen, and falls into the English Channel by a large mouth opposite to Havre. The chief tributaries are the Aube, Marne, and Oise, on the right bank; and the Yonne, Loing, and Eure on the left bank. Obs. 2. The Loire, which rises in Mt. Gerbier-des-Jones (Cevennes), flows N. W. past Orleans, Blois, Tours, and Nantes, and falls into the Atlantic near St. Nazaire. Its chief tributaries are the Maine, on the right bank, and the Allier, Cher, and Vienne on the left.

Obs. 3. The Garonne, which rises in the Spanish Pyrenees, flows N. W., and passing Toulouse, Agen, and Bordeaux, expands into the Gironde, under which name it enters the Atlantic. Its most important tributaries are the Ariège, Tarn, Lot, and Dordogne, on the right; and the Gers, and Baïse on the left.

Obs. 4. The Rhône, which flows from the Alps of Switzerland, forms the lake of Geneva, separates, for some distance, France from Switzerland, enters France, and passing Lyons and Avignon, enters the Mediterranean by several mouths through the Gulf of the Lion. Its principal tributaries are the Ain, and Saône on the right, and the Isère, Drôme, and Durance on the left. (See p. 21.)

Obs. 5. A portion of the drainage of N. and N.E. France is carried to the North Sea by the Moselle, a tributary of the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Escaut (Schelde), rivers which have only part of their courses in France.

CLIMATE. Speaking generally, the climate of France is temperate, the sky clear, the air pure, genial, and salubrious. Yet in the N. the winters are often rigorous, and last nearly half the year, while in the S. the summers are hot and long, the winters mild, and of but brief duration. In central France the temperature is mild and equable.

PRODUCTIONS.-France is celebrated for the fertile quality of its soil, and for the variety and richness of its productions.

The chief productions are corn, wine, olives, figs, plums, and beet-root; silk, and flax; coal, iron, building-stone, and mineral-waters; dairy produce and poultry.

Obs. 1. "La Beauce," in the upper valley of the Loire, and "La Brie," between the Seine and the Marne, are the greatest corn-growing regions in France, and are called "the granaries of Paris."

Obs. 2. Wine is a French product par excellence, no less than one-twentieth part of the entire country being tilled for its growth. Of the 87 departments, 76 cultivate the vine; but three-fourths of the wine produced is drawn from some 30 departments.

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.-The Population of France in 1873 was 36,905,788; the Language is French.

Obs. In addition to French, Italian is spoken in Corsica, and Basque in the W. Pyrenees. Numerous dialects, called Patois, are also in use among the peasantry of many Departments.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

DIVISIONS.-For administrative purposes, France is divided into 87 Departments, each of which is under the government of a Prefect.

Obs. The Departments are subdivided into Arrondissements, governed by subprefects; the Arrondissements into Cantons, presided over by magistrates; and the Cantons into Communes, which are governed by Mayors.

The Departments, with their chief towns, are as follows

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The ten most populous towns of France are, Paris (1,988,806), Lyons (342,815), Marseilles (318,868), Bordeaux (215,140), Lille (162,775), Toulouse (131,642), Nantes (122,247), St. Etienne (126,019), Rouen (104,902), and Havre (92,068).

1 Nearly all the Departments are named from the rivers or mountains which traverse them.