3. Straits, and Channels are the Skager Rack, Kattegat, Great Belt (between the islands Zealand and Funen), the Little Belt (between Funen and the mainland), and the Sound, between Zealand and Sweden. ISLANDS.-More than a third part of Denmark consists of islands. The chief of them are Zealand, Funen, Langeland, Laaland, Falster, Bornholm, Möen, and Samsö. Obs. 1. Zealand (Seeland) is the largest and most important of the Danish islands. It contains Copenhagen, the capital of the kingdom. Obs. 2. Bornholm, the most easterly of the Danish islands, lies outside the limits of longitude given above. SURFACE.—The surface of Denmark exhibits but little variety. It is generally low, Himmels Berg (564 ft.) being the loftiest point in the country. DRAINAGE.-Nearly the whole of Jutland is drained into the North Sea; but neither on the peninsular nor the insular parts are there any large rivers, or large lakes. CLIMATE. The climate, generally speaking, is comparatively temperate, the mean annual temperature at Copenhagen being 47°.18 Fahr. It is very wet, but not unhealthy. The winters are cold, and the channels among the islands are frequently ice-bound. PRODUCTIONS. The soil is rich, the ground fertile, and the productions, though not very varied, are valuable. The Animals of Denmark present no peculiarities, and there are but few Minerals. Grain, and potatoes, are the principal agricultural products; the seas are well supplied with fish. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.-The People are Danes or Scandinavians, and in 1870 numbered 1,784,741. Their Language is closely allied to the languages of Sweden and Norway. But the islanders and those dwelling on the mainland speak widely different dialects. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. With POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-Denmark is divided into 18 Amter, or districts, 9 of which are in Jutland, and 9 in the islands. their chief towns they are given in the table. NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The six most populous towns are Copenhagen (181,291), Odense (16,970), Aarhuus (15,025), Randers (11,354), Aalborg (11,721), Horsens (10,501). Obs. Copenhagen (Merchant's Haven), the capital of Denmark, is situate on the E. coast of Zealand and on the small adjacent island Amager. It is strongly fortified, and contains a fine harbour, a university, a good public library, and a museum rich in northern antiquities. Many of the finest works of Thorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, are treasured up in Copenhagen. The six chief sea-ports, are Copenhagen, Elsinore, Korsör, Aarhuus, Aalborg, and Frederikshavn. Odense, the chief town of Funen, Aalborg, and Aarhuus, are manufacturing towns. Elsinore is famous as the scene of Shakspeare's "Hamlet." INDUSTRIES.—The chief industries are Agriculture, Grazing, and Fishing. The chief exports are corn, cattle, butter, and hides; the chief imports, colonial produce, iron, and timber. The Manufactures are not important. COMMUNICATIONS.—The country is traversed by good High-Roads; there are also nearly 1,000 m. of Railway; and all the coast towns of importance have good Steam-boat services. There are also about 2000 m. of Telegraph Lines. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy; the Religion is Protestant, and 99 per cent. of the people are Lutherans. Education is widely diffused, and nearly every person can read and write. FOREIGN POSSESSIONS. These consist of Iceland, the Faroe Isles, Greenland, and the Danish West Indies, viz., Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John. Obs. 1. Iceland lies just outside the Arctic Circle, 700 m. W. of Norway. Its area is 39,535 sq. m., its population, 69,763. The surface is mountainous, and a large proportion of it is covered with perpetual snow and ice. Subterranean fires rage throughout the island, and volcanoes form its most striking feature. Mt. Hekla (5,108 ft.) is the most famous of the volcanoes. A few miles N.W. of Hekla lie the celebrated hot-water springs called "the Geysers." The climate is fickle, the soil poor, and sterility is very general. The people are occupied in cattle-rearing, fishing, and hunting. The capital of Iceland is Reykjavik, near the S. W. corner. In 1874 Christian IX., King of Denmark, conferred on the islanders a separate Constitution and an independent Administration. Obs. 2. The Faroe Isles (Sheep Isles) are a group of some 35 islands and islets in the Atlantic, about midway between Iceland and S. Norway. They have a total area of 515 sq. m. and a population of 11,000. Strömö is the chief island, and Thorshavn, on the E. side of Strömö, is the chief town. The people, who are of Scandinavian origin, have occupied these islands since the 9th century. THE NETHERLANDS, OR HOLLAND. Latitude. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Between 50° 45′ and 53° 37′ N. Longitude. Between 3° 24′ and Obs. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is not included here. POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-The country of the Netherlands lies in the W. of Europe. It is bounded on the N. and W. by the North Sea. E. by Germany. S. by Belgium. COASTS.-The coasts are everywhere low, and in the N. and S. are deeply penetrated by inlets of the sea. The most noteworthy coast features are the 1. Capes De Helder at the entrance to the Zuyder Zee, and Hoek-van-Holland, at the mouth of the Maas. 2. Inlets, the estuary of the Ems with the Dollart Zee, on the N.; the Zuyder Zee, estuary of the Maas, E. Schelde, and W. Schelde, on the W. Obs. 1. The Zuyder Zee (South Sea, so called in contradistinction to the North Sea) is a vast gulf of the North Sea. It is shallow and, on the W. side, shoaly. An inlet called the Y, or Hot Y, branches off from the S. W. extremity towards the W. coast, and forms the harbour of Amsterdam. This inland sea was formed by a terrible inundation of the N. Sea, A. D. 1282. 3. Straits and Channels-Marsdiep, between Texel island and the mainland, the chief entrance to the Zuyder Zee from the W.; Goedereed Gat, or Haring Vliet, between the islands Beyerland and Overflakke; Brouwershaven Gat, or Krammer, between the island Overflakke and the mainland. ISLANDS.-The Dutch islands consist of two well defined groups, which lie, respectively, on the N.W., off the Zuyder Zee, and on the S.W. among the mouths of the Rhine, Maas, and Schelde. The chief islands of the 1st Group, are Texel, Vlieland, Ter Schelling, and Ameland. 2nd Group-Ysselmonde, Beyerland, Overflakke, Schouwen, N. and S. Beveland, and Walcheren. Obs. 1. Texel, the chief island of the first group, is 13 m. long, and 6 m. broad, and has a population of about 5,000, who are mostly engaged in agriculture and seafaring pursuits. The remaining islands are all inhabited and afford the same kinds of resources to the people as does Texel. Obs. 2. Walcheren, the principal island of the S. W. group, has a population of upwards of 40,000. Its surface, lying below the level of the sea, is protected from inundation by dykes and dunes. The soil is fertile, but the climate is very insalubrious. The other islands of this group are of the same general character as Walcheren, being low, fenced by dykes and sandhills, fertile,-producing large crops of grain and madder,-and very unhealthy. SURFACE. The country in its general aspect is flat and monotonous in the extreme, and many parts of it lie even considerably below the level of the sea. Originally, these low regions were great morasses; but, having been drained, they are now amongst the richest and most fertile tracts in Holland. There are no mountains, no rocks, and not much wood. DRAINAGE.-Holland is amongst the most copiously watered countries of the world. Its general slope is westward, and all its drainage flows, or is conducted by a vast network of canals, to the North Sea. The chief Rivers may be grouped into those which flow to the 1. North Sea, viz., the Schelde, Maas or Meuse, and Rhine. 2. Zuyder Zee, viz., the Amstel, Yssel, and Vecht. Obs. 1. The Schelde, or Scheldt, rises in N. France, traverses Belgium and the S.W. part of Holland, and after a generally Northward course of 210 m., enters the North Sea by two mouths-the E. and W. Scheldes. Its chief tributaries are the Scarpe, and the Lys, on the left bank; the Dender, and Rupel-formed by the union of the Senne, Dyle, and Nethe-on the right bank, Obs. 2. The Rhine, see p. 20. CLIMATE. The climate of Holland is humid, raw, and often foggy. The mean annual temperature may be compared to that of England, but while the summers are hotter than ours, the winters are colder, the canals being often frozen for months together, and sometimes, the Zuyder Zee also. PRODUCTIONS. About half the soil of Holland is rich and fertile, and produces good crops of oats, wheat, barley, and buckwheat; potatoes, chicory, and madder; hemp, flax, and hops. Waterfowl abound in the marshes, and storks are very numerous. The country also includes extensive deposits of turf, and potter's clay. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE.-The People are of Germanic race, and are called Dutch; they numbered 3,924,792 in 1877. The Language of the country is Dutch. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-Holland is divided into 11 Provinces. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is also connected with the country through the Sovereign, but it has a separate administration. NOTES ON THE CHIEF TOWNS.-The three most populous cities are Obs. Amsterdam, or Amstel-dam (=the dam, or dyke, on the Amstel), the capital, lies on the little river Amstel, at its confluence with the Y. The city is built upon 90 islands, which are connected together by 290 bridges. It is traversed in every direction by canals, and ranks among the chief commercial cities in the world. The population includes 30,000 Jews, about a third part of whom are engaged in diamond-cutting. The chief sea-ports are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Dordrecht, Harlingen, and Helder. The chief manufacturing centres are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, Arnhem, and Groningen. The seats of the Dutch universities are Leyden, Groningen, and Utrecht. Other notable Dutch towns are Maastricht, a strong fortress on the Maas; Delft," the parent of pottery;" Zutphen, where Sir Philip Sydney received his death wound; Haarlem, famous for its resistance against the Spaniards in 1572 and 1573; Zaandam, where "Peter the Great" studied the art of ship-building; and Schiedam, the seat of the "Hollands" distilleries. INDUSTRIES.-Holland is essentially a Commercial Country. Pastoral Pursuits, Agriculture, Manufactures, and Fishing come next in importance. The chief Manufactures are type-founding, sugarrefining, gin-distilling, ship-building, and diamond-cutting. The chief exports are butter, cheese, fat cattle, and refined sugar: the chief imports, cottons, woollens, yarns, iron machinery, and colonial produce. COMMUNICATIONS.-Canals constitute the great commercial highways of Holland. There are also excellent services of Highways, Railways, and Telegraphs. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The Government is an hereditary constitutional monarchy. Religion is chiefly Protestant -Calvinistic and Lutheran-but there are many Jews, and Roman Catholics also. Education has much improved of late years, but it is still in a comparatively backward state. FOREIGN POSSESSIONS.-The foreign possessions of Holland have an aggregate area of 677,452 sq. m. and a population of 24,386,991. Obs. The Dutch foreign possessions lie in 1. The East Indies-as Sumatra, Java and Madura, Borneo, the Celebes, Papua BELGIUM. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Lat. Between 49° 30′ and 51° 30′ N. Long. Between 2° 33′ and 6° 5′ E. Area. 11,370 sq.m. POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Belgium lies in the W. of Europe. It is bounded on the N. by Holland. E. by Dutch Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Rhenish Prussia. S. and S.W. by France. N.W. by the North Sea. COASTS.-The coast of Belgium is of small extent, uniformly low, and unbroken by any cape or inlet of any importance. The SURFACE. The country is, generally speaking, flat. "Campine," a large and desolate tract of moorland, lies along the N.E. frontier. Ramifications of the Ardennes mountains cover certain districts in the S.E.: but there is no mountain range properly so called, nor is there any elevation of more than 2,000 ft. The remainder of the Belgian territory consists of slightly undulating plains, which are diversified by numerous woods. F |