tributaries are the Wabash on the right, the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Tennessee on the left. The Ohio and its tributaries furnish 5,000 m. of navigable waters. Obs. 4. Rio Grande del Norte (p. 196, Obs. 5). 2. Lakes, which are large and very important. The chief of them are Lakes Superior (p. 196, Obs. 1), Michigan (ib. Obs. 2), Huron (ib. Obs. 3), Erie (ib. Obs. 4), Ontario (ib. Obs. 5), Champlain, and Wenham, in the N.E.; and Great Salt Lake in the W. Obs. 1. Of the four great lakes, Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, the S. parts only belong to the United States. Michigan, however, entirely belongs to them. Obs. 2. Wenham Lake, which lies in Massachusetts, is famous for the excellent ice which it yields, and which is exported to India, Great Britain, and France in very large quantities. Obs. 3. The Great Salt Lake lies in the Great Basin in the central division of the Pacific Highlands, and is a Continental Lake. Its area is 1,800 sq. m., and its waters intensely salt. It drains the small fresh water lake Utah through the Jordan river, but it has no known outlet. CLIMATE.-The United States lie entirely within the N. Temperate Zone; but they exhibit almost every variety of climate. Florida and the regions on the Gulf of Mexico experience a semi-tropical climate. The climate of the Central and N. States corresponds, generally, to that of the countries of Central and S. Europe, but is more diversified. The swampy districts of the Mississippi and certain low lying regions on the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic have a malarious and unwholesome climate; but that of the States in general is salubrious and favourable to longevity. SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS.-In the N. E. the soil is poor and niggardly. From Long Island Southwards the Atlantic slope belongs to that rich alluvial country which extends along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico and up both sides of the Mississippi, and covers large portions of the valley of the Ohio. Considerable areas of the Pacific Highlands and their eastern slope are barren and stony wastes. The Productions generally are of the same kinds as those given in the table, p. 197,-wheat, cotton, and tobacco being the characteristic. PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.-The population of the United States and Alaska in 1870 was 38,925,598, and consisted mainly of 1. Caucasians or Whites, who are entirely immigrant and mostly of English and Irish origin. 2. Negroes or Blacks, who are of African extraction. 3. Indians or Red Men, who are indigenous to the soil but have now dwindled down to about 300,000, some of whom are semi-civilised. 4. Asiatics or Yellow Men, who are immigrants from China and Japan; these only number about 63,000, and are found chiefly in the gold districts of the W. The Language of the State, of literature, and of the great bulk of the people, is English. Obs Alaska, formely called "Russian America," was purchased from Russia in 1867. It lies at the N. W. corner of the continent, and is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean; E. by British N. America; S. by the Pacific Ocean; and W. by Behring Sea, and Behring Strait. The area is estimated at 577,390 sq. m. The coasts on the W. and S. are deeply penetrated with arms of the sea, and thickly fringed with islands. Of the inlets, the chief are Behring Bay, and Cook Sound, on the S.; and Bristol Bay, Norton Sound, and Kotzebue Sound, on the W The chief capes are Newenham, Romanzov, Prince of Wales, Hope, Lisburne, and Much of the surface of Alaska is still unexplored, but the S., S. E., and S.W. parts are known to be mountainous and volcanic; while as much of the N. portion as is known, presents a broken, hilly, and elevated expanse. The principal Mountains are, The Coast, or St. Elias Range, which extends along the coast from California to the Peninsula of Aliaska, and culminates in Mt. St. Elias (17,900 ft.); it includes numerous very high peaks and several volcanoes. The great river is the Yukon or Kwichpak, which rises in British territory and after a course of 2000 m., empties itself into Behring Sea. Its chief tributary is the Porcupine on the right bank. The climate, which is naturally extreme, is much tempered by the large surrounding bodies of water and by the warm current which sets in thitherwards from Japan. Still, snow from 8 to 12 feet deep, lies on the ground from November to April. The short summers are intensely hot, and bring to swift maturity a rapidly developed, and often luxuriant, vegetation. There are extensive tracts of rich alluvial soil. Excellent timber abounds; fur-bearing animals are still plentiful; and fish swarm on the coasts and in the rivers. The population is 70,461, of whom 483 are Russians, 1421 Creoles, and the remainder natives of various tribes. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-The United States consist of thirty-eight States, one District, and eight Territories. Obs. 1. The "Original Thirteen" form the nucleus of this vast organisation. They occupy the Atlantic Coast, and still constitute the most populous and influential part of the Union. They were English colonies, but obtained their independence in 1783, united themselves under one constitution, and inaugurated the Government of "The United States of America." They are 1. New Hampshire. 2. Massachusetts. 3. Rhode Island. 4. Connecticut. 5. New York. 6. Pennsylvania. 9. Maryland. 10. Virginia. 11. North Carolina. 12. South Carolina. 13. Georgia. Obs. 2. The "Territories are incipient States, controlled by, but not yet incorporated with the Union, because they have not sufficient population. For convenience of reference the States are usually thrown into seven groups,1 as in the following table :— 1 Such groupings are, of course, more or less arbitrary. The States are often divided into "Northern" and "Southern," or "Free" and "Slave" States. Those of the Atlantic are called | "Atlantic States;" those in the Valley of the 8. Pennsylvania 3. 9. New Jersey 5. 10. Delaware 6 11. Maryland 7. Albany, New York, Harrisburg, Trenton, Newark. 27. Indiana 28. Illinois Phila- 35. Kansas ...... Dover, Wilmington. Lansing, Detroit. Columbus, Cincinnati. Indianopolis, Evans ville. Springfield, Chicago. Madison, Milwaukee. St. Paul, Minneapolis. Des Moines, Dubuque. Lincoln, Omaha. Denver. Jefferson City, St. Louis. Topeka, Leavenworth. VI. 3 PACIFIC STATES. Annapolis, Baltimore.8 36. Oregon........ Salem, Portland. 12. W. Virginia .. Wheeling. [town. Columbia (Dist.)9 Washington, George-37. California 16 III. 5 SOUTH-EASTERN STATES. 1 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, are the chief manufacturing States. They turn out nearly half the cotton, woollen, and leather goods produced by the States. 2 New York was so named after the Duke of York and Albany, brother of Charles II. 3 So called from William Penn, the Quaker. 4 The Declaration of Independence was made here 4th July, 1776. 5 Was so named after Lord Jersey. 6 So named after Lord De La Warr. 7 After Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I. 8 Baltimore is styled "The Monumental City," in allusion to its statue of Washington (212 feet high), and "The Battle Monument," in memory of the defenders of the city (1814). 9 Columbia District is about 60 sq. m. in extent, and has been formed out of territory ceded to the Government by the States of Virginia and Maryland. Its name is taken from Columbus, the discoverer. 10 The oldest and largest of the "original thirteen" States. It is often called "The Old Dominion," and many of the most illustrious Americans were Virginians, e.g. Washington, Madison, Jefferson, &c. 11 The Carolinas were originally named after Charles IX. of France; afterwards from Charles 38. Nevada Sacramento, San Francisco. Carson City, Virginia. The first I. and Charles II. of England. English colony was founded in North Carolina by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585. The Colony, which was settled on Roanoke Island, was given up the following year. 12 Georgia was so called after George II., who granted the charter of the Colony in 1792. 13 Was purchased from Spain in 1819, and admitted into the Union in 1845. 14 So called after Louis XIV. It was purchased from France in 1803, when it included Arkansas, Mississippi, and other Western States. It was admitted into the Union in 1812. 15 Texas was originally included in Mexico. It became one of the United States in 1845 by annexation. It is the largest State in the Union, 16 Purchased from Mexico in 1848, and incorporated with the Union in 1850. The agricultur capacities of California are as valuable as its mineral resources. It produces the most excellent wheat, tea, coffee, and the most delicious fruits and vegetables; and its forests contain the most gigantic trees known. The Yosemite Waterfalls of the Mereed River, which are "half a mile high," are the loftiest in the world. 17 Organised in 1850. The white population are Mormons, or " Latter Day Saints." NOTES ON THE TOWN. The most populous towns are New York (942,292), Philadelphia (674,022), Brooklyn (396,099), St. Louis (310,864), Chicago (498,977), Baltimore (267,354), Boston (250,526), Cincinnati (216,239), New Orleans (191,418), San Francisco (149,473), Buffalo (117,714). Washington (109,199), Newark (105,059), and Louisville (100,753). Obs. 1. Washington, on the Potomac, is the Federal capital of the States and the seat of Government. It owes its importance to the presence of the Government, having neither manufactures nor commerce. It is celebrated for its magnificent public buildings, the chief of which is the Capitol. Obs. 2. New York, the largest and most important city in the New World lies at the head of New York Bay, on Manhattan Island. It is the trade emporium of the whole of the United States, and is called the "Empire City," a distinction which it owes to its maritime position, its river Hudson, which connects it with the ports on the great lakes, and to its excellent harbour. Obs. 3. Philadelphia, which is situated on the river Delaware and near the head of Delaware Bay, is renowned for its learned and charitable institutions, and for its manufactures. It was formerly the capital of the United States. The chief Naval Ports are, Portsmouth, Charleston, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, League Island, New London, and Washington. The chief Commercial Ports are on the 1. Atlantic, Boston, New York with Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and Savannah. 2. Gulf of Mexico, New Orleans, Mobile, and Galveston. 3. Pacific, San Francisco. 4. Lakes, Milwaukee, and Chicago, on Michigan; Detroit, Toledo, and Buffalo on Erie; and Oswego, on Ontario. The chief Manufacturing Towns are-for cotton goods, Lowell (the American Obs. Many of the towns of the States bear descriptive titles-e.g., New York is called "Empire City;" Cincinnati, "the Queen of the West;" Washington, "the City of magnificent distances;" Cleveland, "the Forest City of the North;" Savannah, "the Forest City of the South;" Newhaven, "the Elm City;" Milwaukee, "the Cream City;" Baltimore, "the Monumental City," &c. INDUSTRIES.-The principal branch of American industry is Agriculture. In some of the states grazing is very extensively followed. Manufactures are mostly carried on in the N.E. states, the principal classes of goods manufactured being machinery, flour and meal, cotton and woollen fabrics, and leather. Mining is important, and annually becomes more so. Lumbering is a most active industry, and a source of great wealth to the Republic. The commerce is vast, and includes the export of wheat, flour, cotton, tobacco, pickled pork, hams, butter, and cheese; and the import of manufactured goods, chiefly from Great Britain. COMMUNICATIONS.-The sea and lake frontage of the United States is of enormous extent. Navigable Rivers connected by canals intersect the country in all directions. The Railways open for traffic in January, 1878, had an aggregate length of 79,208 m. At the same P date there were 95,500 m. of telegraphic lines open. Two submarine cables connect N. America with England, and one with France. GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION.-The States constitute a "Federal Republic," and the Government is Democratic. Each state has a constitution for the management of its own internal affairs. The Religion is Christianity, the mass of the people being Protestants. Most of the French and Irish settlers are Roman Catholics. A good Education is brought within reach of the poorest classes by a system of municipal and state-aided schools. In addition to these public free-schools there are, in the large towns and cities, academies, colleges, and schools for technical and professional education. III. THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. PHYSICAL FACTS. The area of Mexico is 740,637 sq. m.; its greatest length from N.W. to S.E. is about 1,800 m., its breadth ranges from 137 m. to 1250 m. It lies between the parallels 15° 20′ and 32° 30′ N. lat., and between the meridians 86° 45′ and 117° 30′ W. long., and is bounded on the N. by the United States; on the E. by the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and Central America; on the S. and W. by the Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of California. The coasts have been computed at nearly 6000 m., but they comprise no important harbours. The chief inlets are the Gulfs of Vera Cruz, and Campeche, on the E., the Gulf of Tehuantepec, on the S., and the Gulf of California, on the N.W. The principal capes are Catoche, on the E.; Corrientes, Lucas, and St. Eugenio on the W. The surface of this remarkable country is much varied. Its general altitude ranges from 6,500 ft. to 8,000 ft. above the level of the sea. It is traversed by four principal mountain ranges, viz., 1. The E. Cordilleras or Sierra Guadelupe, in the E.; 2. Sierra Madre, in the centre; 3. Sierra Sonora, on the E. side of the Gulf of California; and 4. The Californian Range, on the W. side of that gulf. The colossal summits, Popocatepetl, Orizaba, Colima, and Tuxtla, belong to the great volcanic belt in which these ranges terminate. The general plateau of Mexico is divided into sub-plateaux by the mountain ranges, the chief of which are the plateau of 1. Chihuahua or New Spain, in the N.; 2. Sonora, in the N.W.; and 3. Anahuac, in the S. The chief rivers are the Rio Grand del Norte (see p. 196, Obs. 5), the Rio Grande de Santiago, which flows into the Pacific; and the Rio Colorado. Of the many lakes in Mexico the chief are Chapala, which is drained by the Rio Grande de Santiago, Cayman, in N. Mexico, and Tezcuco, near the capital. The Mexicans divide their country into 3 climatic zones, viz., 1. The cold region, which embraces the general tableland, and has a mean annual temperature of 64° at Mexico city; 2. The temperate region, which includes the slopes of the tableland, and has a mean annual temperature of 68° or 70°. 3. The torrid region, which lies on the coast and has a mean annual temperature of 77°. The soil is very variable in quality; the best is found in the torrid region; but that which is most cultivated by the natives belongs to the temperate region. Of the animal productions, the most valuable is the cochineal insect. The turkey is native to Mexico. The vegetable productions comprise excellent wheat and maize; the most delicious fruits; spices, such as vanilla, pimento, capsicum or Spanish pepper, &c.; the mague or pulque plant (from the juice of which the Mexicans make their national beverage" Pulque"), which |