its mouth to Rocky Mountains House, on its N. branch, a distance of 1,000 m. Its waters are carried from Lake Winnipeg to Hudson's Bay by the Nelson, and Severn. Obs. 3. The St. Lawrence is a mighty river which, by a N.E. course of 2,200 m. long, drains an area of 600,000 sq. m. It has its ultimate source in the small stream St. Louis, which falls into the W. extremity of Lake Superior. Passing through all the great lakes, it flows N. E. to the Atlantic, which it reaches through the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The name St. Lawrence is properly applied only to that part of the river between Lake Ontario and the sea. The chief tributaries are the Ottawa, St. Maurice, and Saguenay, on the N.; and the Richelieu and Chaudiere, on the S. bank. The St. Lawrence forms part of the boundary of the United States, and with its tributaries embraces about 4,000 m. of navigable waters. It flows past the towns Detroit, Buffalo, Montreal, and Quebec. Obs. 4. The Mississippi ("the great and long river,") with the Missouri ("muddy river"), the longest river in the world, has its remotest sources among the Rocky Mountains in the state of Montana. Its general course is E., S. E., and S., and it carries off to the Gulf of Mexico the drainage of almost all the territory between the Rocky and Alleghany Mountains. Its length is estimated at 4,300 m., the area which it drains at 1,350,000 sq. m., and the total length of its navigable waters at 35,000 m. The principal tributaries of the Missouri branch are the Nebraska, and Kansas; of the Mississippi, the Minnesota, Arkansas, and Red River, on the W.; the Wisconsin, Illinois, and Ohio, on the E. bank. Obs. 5. The Rio Grande del Norte, rises in the Sierra Madre, flows S. and S.E., and after a course of 1,800 m., falls into the Gulf of Mexico. Its principal tributary is the Pecos, on the N. bank. The Rio Grande is navigable to Kingsbury Rapids, 450 m. from the Gulf of Mexico. 2. Lakes. The vast lakes of N. America contain more than half the fresh water of the globe, so that N. America may justly be called "the Continent of lakes." The most important lakes lie in the Great Central Plain. They are, going from N. to S., the lakes of the a. Mackenzie Basin, viz., the Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabaska, Wollaston, Deer, and Little Slave Lakes. b. Saskatchewan Basin, viz., Winnipeg, Winnipegoos, Manitoba, Lake of the Woods, Rainy, and Seal Lakes. c. St. Lawrence Basin, viz., Nipigon, Superior, Michigan, Euron, Erie, and Ontario Lakes. Obs. 1. Lake Superior is the largest body of fresh water known to exist. Its area is estimated at 32,000 sq. m., its greatest depth at 600 ft. It contains numerous islands, and receives about 200 streams. It discharges its surplus waters towards the S.E. into Lake Huron, by the River St. Mary. Obs. 2. Lake Michigan, S. E. of Lake Superior, has an area of 22,400 sq. m., and its mean depth is said to be 1,000 ft. It belongs entirely to the United States, and has on its W. shores the towns Chicago, and Milwaukee. Obs. 3. Lake Huron, E. by N. of Lake Michigan, has an area of 20,400 sq. m., and a depth of 900 ft. The great island Manitoulin divides the N. part of the lake from the rest, and this is called the Georgian Bay. It receives the surplus waters of Lake Superior, and Michigan, and is drained by the Detroit River, which connects it with the Lakes St. Clair, and Erie. Obs. 4. Lake Erie, S. E. of Lake Huron, has an area of 12,000 sq. m. and a depth of 204 ft. It discharges itself into Lake Ontario by the Niagara River.1 Obs. 5. Lake Ontario lies N.E. of Erie, and is the most E. of the five great lakes. Its area is 6,600 sq. m., and its general depth 500 ft. It receives the Rivers Genesse, Oswego, and Trent; and emits the St. Lawrence. CLIMATE. AS N. America stretches from within the Frigid Zone to far within the Torrid Zone, its climate is naturally much varied. The climate, moreover, which is ordinarily normal to each of these zones, is, in the case of N. America, greatly modified by the 1 The Falls of Niagara, between Lakes Erie and Ontario, are formed by the sudden leap of the river over a vast ledge of rock into an abyss below. The waters are divided into two streams by Goat Island, one on the N. or Canadian side, which is called the "Horse Shoe Fall," and is 1,800 ft. broad and 154 ft. in perpendicular depth; and one on the S. side, 900 ft. broad and 163 ft. deep, called the "American Falls." vast adjacent oceans, by the position of the Pacific and Atlantic Highlands, and by the enormous accumulations of ice on the Arctic shores; so that in N. America it is generally colder and wetter than in the corresponding latitudes of the Old World. There are also great local varieties of climate produced by special agencies. Such, e.g., as the Arctic winds from the N., the Tropical winds from the S., the warm current on the W., and the cold one on the E. coasts. SOIL.-The proportion of productive soil in N. America is not large, as compared with the vast area of that continent. For instance, a great portion of the territory N. of lat. 50°, is rendered barren and uncultivable by the rigours of the Arctic climate, and vast tracts of the Pacific highlands are sterile from drought and their stony constitution. But, on the other hand, nearly the whole of the Great Central plain, together with broad belts of territory on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic, and Hudson Bay, are remarkable for their great fertility. NATURAL PRODUCTIONS.—The animals of N. America are generally smaller and less serviceable to man than those in the Old World. Great variety and luxuriance characterise the vegetation; whilst the mineral wealth of the country is most important, and practically inexhaustible. The table contains only the most characteristic productions of the Continent. barley, oats, amd millet are MINERALS. monds, found in California. Domestic. These have been Grain. Wheat, maize, rice, Precious Stones. Diaall imported from the Old World. Wild. The grizzly bear, the puma or American lion, the bison or American buffalo, the Newfoundland, Mackenzie River dogs; together with various species of wolf, fox, deer, sheep, and goat-are either peculiar or natural to N. hemp. America. and] The characteristic animals of this continent inIclude also the white or polar bear, the brown bear, the elk or moose deer, the rein deer, the white fox, marten, otter, seal, walrus, and whale. Of Birds, various kinds of eagles, vultures, and hawks. Wild turkeys, waterfowl, ance. Fibrous Plants are chiefly re- Precious Metals. Gold and silver, which are found in both the Pacific and Atlantic Highlands. copper, lead, tin, zinc, and mercury, all of which are found in numerous localities throughout the country. Medicines and Spices include Other Metals. Iron, 400 ft. high, is found in Cali- Other Minerals. Coal, partridges, and quails, are The potato, tobacco, maize and the most characteristic. Reptiles are few, but they include the rattlesnake. chocolate are indigenous to salt, sulphur, marble, and various building stone. good 2 PEOPLE AND LANGUAGES.-The population of N. America is estimated at 52,055,957, and consists chiefly of 1. Esquimaux,1 a dwarfish race, seldom exceeding five feet in height, who occupy the N. coasts and adjacent islands. They speak the Esquimaux language, of which, however, the dialects are numerous and widely diversified. 2. Indians, or native Americans, who are now found principally in the N., S., and W. parts of the country. They belong to various stems, and speak different languages. 3. Negroes, who were imported from Africa as slaves. They have been emancipated to a large extent, and are being gradually civilized. They speak a mongrel form of English. 4. Whites, who include immigrants from all parts of the Old World. Their dominant language is English. POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-N. America embraces the following countries, viz. 1. British N. America. 2. The United States of America, and Alaska. 3. The Republic of Mexico. 4. The Central American States. 5. The West Indies. I. BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. British N. America comprises all that part of the New World which lies N. of the 49th parallel and the basin of the great lakes, except the peninsula of Alaska which belongs to the United States. It includes the Dominion of Canada, and the Colony of Newfoundland. Obs. The territories of British N. America are equal in area to those of the United States, but a large proportion of them is waste land. i. THE DOMINION OF CANADA. Latitude. Between 42° and 72° N. Longitude. Between 55° 40′ and 141° W. Obs. 1. The extreme points marked by these limits are Pelée Isle in Lake Erie, on the S.; Murchison Point, in Boothia, on the N.; Cape Charles, on the E.; and Mt. St. Elias, on the W. Obs. 2. That part of Labrador which drains into the Atlantic is under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-Canada lies in the N. part of America. It is bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean; E. by the Atlantic Ocean; S. by the United States; and W. by the Pacific Ocean, and the Peninsula of Alaska. COASTS. These comprise a great length; but much of their extent 1 This term was originally applied to the natives who inhabited Labrador; it is now used to designate an Indian living in Arctic America and Greenland. * The name given to the native inhabitants, generally, of America by Christopher Columbus. When he discovered America he was under the impression that it was part of the Indian Islands, and called the people Indians. is rendered, commercially, useless by the severe climate. The features to be noted are the 1. Capes, viz., Kay, Bathurst, Murchison, and Chudleigh, on the N.; Mugford, Charles, St. Lewis, Whittle, Gaspe, Canso, and Sable, on the E. 2. Inlets, viz., Mackenzie, Hudson, and Ungava Bays, on the N.; St. Lawrence, and Fundy Bays, on the E. Obs. 1. Hudson Bay, so named after Henry Hudson who discovered it in 1610, is an inland sea of some 300,000 sq. m. in extent. Hudson Strait joins it to the Atlantic Ocean, but its waters are almost always closed up by ice. Obs. 2. The Bay or Gulf of St. Lawrence is a large arm of the Atlantic, enclosed between the mainland and the islands Newfoundland, and Cape Breton. It receives the St. Lawrence River, and includes on its W. side Chaleur, and Miramichi Bays. It contains Prince Edward Island, Anticosti, and many other isles, and has important fisheries. 3. Straits and Channels, viz., Strait of Belle Isle (between the mainland and Newfoundland); the Gut of Canso (between Cape Breton Island, and Nova Scotia), on the E.; the Strait of Juan de Fuca (S. of Vancouver Island); Haro Strait (between the mainland and S.E. of Vancouver Island); and Strait of Georgia (between the mainland and the E. side of Vancouver Island). ISLANDS.-These are numerous and large, and many of them very important. The chief of them are Newfoundland, Anticosti, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton, off the E. coast; Vancouver Island, and Queen Charlotte Islands, off the W. coast. Obs. 1. Newfoundland, see p. 202. Obs. 2. Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, belongs to the Province of Lower Canada. Its people are few, its soil poor, and its shores dangerous. The fisheries are important. Obs. 3. Prince Edward Island lies in the S. of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is separated from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by the Northumbrian Strait. Its area is 2,173 sq. m. The surface is mostly flat, but occasionally it swells into undulations; the soil is rich and fertile, and the climate mild and salubrious. It is generally well watered by small streams. There are but few wild animals on the island. Grain and vegetables are abundant. Timber of various useful kinds is plentiful; flax and hemp are easily raised. Fish abounds on all the coasts. The population is 94,021, and consists of English, French, and other European colonists, and of a few hundreds of Indians. Obs. 4. Cape Breton forms part of the province of Nova Scotia, though physically separated from it by the Gut of Canso. Its area is something more than 3,000 sq. m., and its population (in 1871) 26,500, who are mostly of Scotch, Irish, and French extraction. Its shores contain some good harbours, amongst the most important of which are Sydney and Louisbourg. Its principal exports are timber, coal, and fish. Its chief towns are Sydney, the capital, Arichat, and Port Hood. Obs. 5. Vancouver Island, (so called from Captain Vancouver of the royal navy, who first discovered that it was an island (1792)), lies at the S. W. extremity of British America, and forms part of British Columbia. It is separated from the mainland by the Johnstone, Georgia, Haro, and Juan de Fuca Straits. The island is 270 m. long, 50 m. broad, and has an area of 16,000 sq. m. Its shores are much penetrated by inlets of the sea, and embrace numerous commodious harbours. It is mountainous, rising in the centre to between 7,000 and 8,000 ft. high. Its soil, where there is any, is rich and productive, the climate good, and the natural productions varied and valuable. The principal exports are timber, fish, and coal. Victoria, the chief town, lies at the S. E. extremity of the island. It is a free port, with a population of some 6,000. SURFACE. In the extreme W., Canada is mountainous. In the W. centre, it is level, or only gently undulating; and in the E., it is varied with ranges of hills, valleys, and picturesque gorges. The chief features are the 1. Mountains, which lie in the W., and belong to the Rocky Mountain System, and in the E. on the Peninsula of Labrador. The principal ranges are the a. Rocky Mountains Proper, which run S.E. from the 64th parallel to and beyond the S. frontiers, including Mt. Brown (16,000 ft.) and Mt. Hooker, (15,700 ft.), the culminating points of the system. b. Peak Mountains, a W. and parallel range of the same system. They are sometimes called the Gold Range, on account of the gold which they contain. c. Babino Range, which lies W. of the Peak Mountains, and runs parallel to them from the 60th parallel to the Fraser River. d. Cascade Range, which lies along the W. edge of the Pacific Highlands, and is a prolongation of the same chain that traverses California. Its W. slopes are covered with dense forests, but its culminating points lie further S. in the territory of the United States. e. Wotchish Range, which runs S.W. and N.E. through the peninsula of Labrador, forming the watershed between the Atlantic and Hudson Bay. f. White Mountains, on the S. side of the St. Lawrence. 2. Plateau of the Pacific Highland which occupies a broad belt in the W. part of the Dominion, stretching from N. to S. between the extreme ranges of the Rocky Mountain System. 3. Plains. From the W. plateau to the Atlantic Ocean, the dominion consists almost entirely of one vast plain which gently slopes towards the N. and N.E. It is deeply penetrated by Hudson Bay, which separates Labrador from the W. portion. DRAINAGE.-The drainage of Canada belongs chiefly to the basins of the Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean. The most important agents are the 1. Rivers which belong to the basin of the a. Arctic Ocean, viz., the Mackenzie (p. 195, Obs. 1), Coppermine, and Great Fish rivers. b. Hudson Bay, viz., the Chesterfield, Churchill, Nelson, Severn, Albany, Moose, and Abbitibbi, from the W.; the Rupert, East Main, and Great Whale rivers, from the E. Obs. Connected with Hudson Bay are also the Saskatchewan (see p. 195, Obs. 2), Red River with its tributary the Assiniboine, and Winnipeg, which flow into Lake Winnipeg, and thence through the Nelson, and Severn into Hudson Bay. c. Atlantic Ocean, viz., the Hamilton, St. Lawrence, (p. 196, Obs. 3) with its great tributaries the Ottawa, and the St. John. d. Pacific Ocean, viz., the Fraser, Simpson, and Yukon. Obs. 1. The Ottawa River, second in size only to the St. Lawrence, rises in the Grand Lake, between the 47th and 48th parallels, and between the 77th and 78th meridians, flows S. E. between the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, drains an area of 80,000 sq. m., and after a course of 600 m., falls into the St. Lawrence near Montreal. Its navigation is much impeded by rapids and cataracts, but the waterpower of this river is almost unlimited. 2. Lakes, which are numerous, and which belong to the Basins of the Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, and St. Lawrence Rivers (p. 196). CLIMATE.-The climate is subject to extremes both of heat and oold, but it is, generally speaking, salubrious. Although the greater portion of the country lies within the N. Temperate Zone, there is longer duration of cold than of hot weather, frost often lasting six months in the year, in the E. parts, and snow four months. It is warmer and drier along the Pacific Highlands, where the annual |