according to its force, is called a Breeze, Wind, Gale, Storm, Tempest, Hurricane, &c.

Obs. 1. The equatorial regions of the earth which form the tropical zone, are the great birth-place of the winds. The high temperature throughout this zone creates a constant and rapid evaporation of water from the ocean, and so warms the lower strata of the atmosphere that there ensues a continuous ascent of heated and moist air into the higher regions, where it divides into two currents which turn respectively N. and S, towards the poles, and a corresponding influx of colder air from the temperate and frigid zones N. and S. of the equatorial belt forming under or surface currents which flow towards the Equator.

Obs. 2. A Breeze is a light wind. In the vicinity of the ocean the daily winds, which blow from and towards the sea alternately, are called sea breezes and land breezes, respectively. Sea breezes blow during the day; land breezes, during the night.

Obs. 3. A Wind is a current of air moving with a speed of from 10 to 40 m. an hour. Winds are classified as Constant, Periodical, Variable, Local, &c.

Constant Winds are the cardinal currents of the air, originated by the heat of the equatorial regions; a great system of upper currents always moving from the equator towards the poles, and of lower currents pressing in towards the equator from the poles. The chief of them are the Trade Winds.

The Trade Winds-so called by early navigators because, from their always blowing in one direction, they could be counted on for trade purposes-prevail within, and for some degrees N. and S. of, the Torrid Zone. On the N. of the Equator they blow from the N. E., and so are called the N.E. Trade Winds; those on the S. blow from the S.E., and are called the S.E. Trade Winds.

Periodical Winds are modifications of the Trade Winds, brought about by the interference and relative positions of large masses of land. The most important of these are called the Monsoons or Season Winds.

The Monsoons-so called from an Arabic word meaning any season of the year-prevail chiefly about the N. part of the Indian Ocean, where from October to April they blow from the N. E., and from April to October, from the S.W. The winter, or N.E. Monsoon is caused by the effect of the S. summer upon the great Áfrican Deserts: the summer or S. W. Monsoon by the effect of the N. summer upon the lands of S. Asia.

Variable Winds are those changeable winds which are experienced in the higher latitudes of the N. and S. hemispheres. Although the causes and operations of these winds are somewhat obscure and partial, observation shews that they do nevertheless follow some general law; for in the N. hemisphere such winds blow chiefly from the S. W., while in the S. hemisphere they are mostly from the N.W.

Local Winds are such as prevail in different countries, and in different parts of the same country, and to which local names have been applied. They are classified as Hot Winds and Cold Winds.

Hot Winds are those which have their origin in and around hot desert regions like those in Asia, Africa, and Australia. The best known of them are

1. The Simoon (hot, poisonous), a scorching and suffocating wind which has its origin in the great African Desert. At times it drives before it dense clouds of sand capable of overwhelming and burying whole caravans of travellers. It is known in Italy as the Sirocco, a hot, moist, and distressingly enervating wind; in Turkey it is called the Samiel; in Spain, the Solano; in. N.E. Africa it is known as the Khamsin (fifty), because it blows for 50 days; and in N.W. Africa, as the Harmattan.

2. The Föhn, a hot wind which occasionally blows in Switzerland. Cold Winds are, for the most part, modifications of the cardinal winds, altered by their passage over lofty and cold districts, which have deprived them of their warmth and moisture. The most common of these winds are

1. The Puna Winds-so called from the tableland of Puna, on the Plateau of Peru, where they have their origin-a branch of the S. E. trade winds which blows for four months of the year from the snowy Cordilleras. They are extremely dry and bitterly cold.

2. The Pampero, a branch of the N. W. trade winds which blows over the Pampas of Buenos Ayres as a violent and extremely arid W. wind.

3. The Mistral, a stormy and violent wind which prevails in S.E. France. 4. The Galezo, a strong N. W. wind which prevails in Spain.

5. The Bora, a tempestuous N.E. wind which is chiefly felt about the head of the Adriatic.

Obs. 4. A Gale is a strong wind moving at 40 m. and upwards per hour. Any wind may rise into a gale; but such winds are prevalent for a few days about the times of the Equinoxes-the 21st March and the 23rd September-and are called Equinoctial Gales.

Obs. 5. A Storm is the name given to winds which are travelling at a speed of 60 m. an hour and upwards. When the speed reaches 80 m. an hour, the storm becomes a tempest; at 90 m. and upwards, a hurricane, the path of which is marked by devastation and ruin.

MOISTURE OF.-Moisture in the form of invisible vapour, is one of the constant ingredients of the air. It is derived by evaporation from the surface of the water and land of the globe. The capacity of the atmosphere for moisture increases with increase of heat, and decreases with loss of heat. Moisture is continuously absorbed until the atmosphere is saturated, or can hold no more; the vapour is then condensed or turned into water again, and appears as Dew, Mist, Fog, Cloud, Rain, Snow, and Hail.

Obs. 1. Dew is vapour wrung out of the air and condensed into visible drops of water. When the sun has withdrawn and the sky is clear, the earth rapidly gives off by radiation the heat which it has acquired during the day, and soon becomes so cold that the air resting upon it is chilled, and unable any longer to retain all its moisture; the portion of moisture let go is condensed into water, and appears as dew. The temperature at which condensation occurs is called the dew point, or point of saturation.

Obs. 2. Mist and Fog are vapour of the atmosphere condensed into very minute particles and rendered visible. They occur whenever masses of warm and moist air come into contact with colder air, or in any other way have their temperature reduced below their dew point. Dew, mist, and fog are formed upon or near the earth's surface..

Obs. 3. Clouds are masses of mist which are formed by condensation in the upper parts of the atmosphere, where they float about instead of resting on the ground. Their formation is similar to that of mist: an ascending current of warm moist air rising high above the earth comes into contact with colder air, has its temperature chilled down to its dew point and part of its moisture condensed into clouds. Clouds are distinguished according to their form as Cirrus, Cumulus, Stratus, and Nimbus.

The Cirrus or Curl Cloud, is a light fleecy cloud and takes its name from the graceful curling form which it assumes. These are the highest of all clouds and, therefore, the lightest. They are said to consist of very fine snowflakes, or of minute particles of ice.

The Cumulus or Summer Cloud, is the massive fleecy cloud which in rounded and fantastic shapes occupies the lower skies. It is mostly formed in the morning, continues to increase and ascend during the day, and disappears towards evening.

The Stratus or Fall Cloud, is the heavy cloud-bank formed on the horizon at nightfall. It disappears with approaching day, or else becomes permanent and passes into rain cloud.

The Nimbus or Rain Cloud is a low leaden-hued cloud which is formed from a combination of the cumulus and stratus, and consists of a mass of condensed moisture ready to fall.

Obs. 4. Rain consists of drops of water formed by the union of the minute particles which constitute the clouds, and falling to the earth because, from their weight, the air can no longer support them. It is, in fact, the result of continuous condensation of the watery vapour of the air by contact with colder bodies. Much the greater part of the vapour of the atmosphere falls to the earth as rain, which in different parts is periodical, or variable, or constant.

Periodical Rains take place in the tropics where the year is divided into two equal parts, viz., a rainy and a dry season. During the dry season no rain falls; and in the wet season rains are not continuous; they fall heavily for four or five hours in the afternoon, but never during the night.

Variable Rains occur in the temperate zones, where they fall at all periods of the year; but in the N. hemisphere most copiously in winter.

Constant Rains, accompanied by frequent thunderstorms, are characteristics of the zone of equatorial calms and variable winds.

Obs. 5. Snow is vapour of water which has been frozen by contact with an atmosphere cooled down to 32° Fahr. It consists of tiny spikes of ice symmetrically arranged. Snow falls for the most part only in winter. Connected

with snow are the Snow-line, Snow-fields, Avalanches, Glaciers, and Icebergs.

The Snow-line or limit of perpetual snow is that line below which all snow is melted by the summer heat, and above which there is always snow. Its height varies from the level of the sea in high latitudes to 20,000 ft. above that level in tropical regions.

Snow-fields are the names given to all permanent sheets of snow, whether occurring on lowlands, as in Greenland, or on tablelands, as in Norway, or on mountain slopes, as in the Alps.

Avalanches are falls of more or less consolidated snow which break off from the edges of snowfields overhanging steep slopes, and rush with violence and thundering noise into the valleys beneath, often marking their path by terrible destruction.

Glaciers are rivers of solid ice which descend down valleys and slopes of mountains from snow-fields lying above the limits of perpetual snow. When they pass below the snow-line, they melt and disappear in streams of water. The fissures and clefts formed in the ice by its passage over steep or abrupt places are called Crevasses; the stones, earth, and general débris which load the glacier are called Moraines.

Icebergs or Ice Mountains are huge floating masses of solid ice which have broken off from the ice-fields or glaciers of polar regions and drifted out to sea. They are of all shapes and sizes; but not more than an eighth part of their bulk stands out of the water. Small masses which drift on the surface are called Ice-floes (Ice Islands). When the ice-fields of the polar regions are broken up, and the parts are driven one upon another and crushed into vast heaps, these are called Ice-packs.

Obs. 6. Hail consists of pellets of snow, or of concretions of ice, which descend from clouds. These pellets are called hail-stones, and are of various shapes and sizes but generally they are small and round, or pear-shaped. The mode of their formation is not known. Hail is more common in hot than in cold weather; and as it often accompanies thunderstorms it is supposed to be connected with electrical changes in the air.

CLIMATE. This is the name now applied to that condition of the atmosphere as to moisture or heat which is normal at any given place, together with its meteorological conditions generally so far as they influence animal and vegetable life. The climate of any place is determined by the following five conditions, viz., 1. Distance from the Equator. 2. Distance from the sea. 3. Height above the 4. Prevailing winds. 5. Local conditions as to soil, vegetation, and proximity to lakes or mountains.

sea.

Obs. 1. The surface of the earth is divided into five great climatic zones or belts, viz.

a. The Torrid Zone, which extends from the tropic of Cancer 23° 28′ N. of the Equator to the tropic of Capricorn, 23° 28' S. of the Equator.

b. The North Temperate Zone, which stretches from the tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle (66° 32′ N. lat.).

c. The South Temperate Zone, which extends from the tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle (66° 32′ S. lat.).

d. The North Frigid Zone, which embraces all that part of the earth's surface which lies N. of the Arctic Circle.

e. The South Frigid Zone, which comprises all that part of the earth's surface S. of the Antarctic Circle.

Obs. 2. These zones designate the three great types of climate prevalent on the surface of the globe-viz., Torrid or Tropical; Temperate; and Frigid or Arctic. Obs. 3. According to the distribution of temperature throughout the year, climates are further classified as Insular, Continental, and Extreme.

Insular Climate is so called because it is the climate which prevails in islands. In this case the temperature of summer is not much in excess of that of winter. In the Friendly Isles the difference is only 2° Fahr.

Continental Climate is the climate which prevails in the interior of large countries, as Russia, Canada, &c., where the difference between summer and winter temperature is strongly marked. At Quebec this difference is 58° Fahr. Extreme Climate is marked by a great difference between the temperatures of summer and winter-e.g., at Yakutsk in Siberia the difference is 102° Fahr. Obs. 4. The Mean Temperature of summer, of winter, and of the whole year is indicated on maps by Isotheral, Isocheimal, and Isothermal lines.

Isotheral Lines are lines drawn through places having the same summer temperature.

Isocheimal Lines are lines drawn through places which have the same winter temperature.

Isothermal Lines are lines drawn through all places having the same annual temperature.

III.-POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. WHAT IT IS.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY occupies itself with the artificial divisions of the earth's surface into countries, and with the occupations, governments, &c., which men have devised for their collective and individual well-being.

2. EXPLANATIONS AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS.

Government is that authority which is charged with the administration of the affairs of a country.

Obs. The manner in which this authority is exercised varies according to the constitution of the State. The two principal forms of Government are Monarchical and Republican.

A Monarchy is a state ruled by one sole chief, who usually bears the title of King or Emperor. Monarchies, again, are

1. Absolute Monarchies, where the sovereign power rests entirely in the person of the monarch, who is subject to no restrictions save those of the fundamental laws of the State-such, e.g., as Russia and Turkey.

N.B. These are sometimes called also Despotisms and Tyrannies.

2. Limited Monarchies, in which the sovereign power is divided between the monarch and the representatives of the nation, and exercised under the restrictions of a Constitution-such, e.g, are England, Spain, Belgium, &c.

N.B. These are called also Constitutional and Representative Monarchies. A Kingdom is a monarchy which is ruled by a King or Queen-e.g., England, &c.

An Empire is a monarchy which is governed by an Emperor-e.g., Austria, &c. N.B. Empires are popularly supposed to be larger than kingdoms, but they are not necessarily so. There is no difference other than this between them. A Republic is a State in which the exercise of the sovereign power is lodged in representatives elected by the people-e.g., France.

N.B. What are called Federal Republics consist of several States, each of which retains its own peculiar Constitution-e.g., Switzerland.

A Colony is a foreign possession peopled chiefly by settlers from some parent state or by their descendants, e.g., Canada, New Zealand, &c.

Obs. The British possessions in India are not colonies.

A Dependency is a foreign possession which with its native people has become subject to another state, e.g., Gibraltar, Malta, &c.

EUROPE.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 36° and 71° 6' N.

Longitude. Between 9° 30′ W. and 66 E.

Area. 3,933,073 sq. m.

POSITION AND Boundaries.—Europe lies on the N.W. side of the Old World. It is bounded on the

N. by the Arctic Ocean.

E. by Eastern or Asiatic Russia, and the Caspian Sea.

S. by the Strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean, the Sea of Marmara, and the Black sea.

W. by the Atlantic Ocean.

COASTS. The coasts of Europe are very irregular and greatly extended. The coast-line is estimated at 26,716 m. or 1 m. of coast to every 143 sq. m. of area; a proportion of coast-line to area much in excess of that of any other continent. The chief features on these coasts are the

1. Capes, Kanin, and North, on the N.; The Naze, Skaw, La Hague, Finisterre, Roca, and St. Vincent, on the W.; Tarifa, Spartivento, and Matapan on the S. 2. Inlets, the White Sea, on the N.; The Baltic Sea, the Zuyder Zee, and Bay of Biscay, on the W.; the Mediterranean, Sea of Marmara, and Black Sea, on the S.

Obs. 1. The Baltic Sea is an arm of the North Sea, which stretches E. between Scandinavia, on the N., and Denmark and Prussia on the S.; and N., between Scandinavia and Russia. Its length is about 900 m., its greatest breadth 180 m., and its area about 160,000 sq. m. It includes four great arms, viz., the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, Riga, and Danzig, and receives about a fifth part of the entire drainage of Europe. Large quantities of amber are found on its S. shores.

Obs. 2. The Mediterranean Sea is the largest branch of the Atlantic Ocean. Its waters wash the S. shores of Europe, the W. shores of Asia, and the N. shores of Africa; and have an area of nearly 1,000,000 sq m. Within its limits are included four minor seas, viz. :—1. The Tyrrhenian Sea, between Italy and the islands Corsica and Sardinia. 2. The Ionian Sea, between S.E. Italy and Greece. 3. The Adriatic Sea, between Italy and Turkey. 4. The Ægean Sea or Archipelago, E. of Greece.

Obs. 3. The Sea of Marmara, so called from the celebrated marble island (anct. Proconessus) near its W. end, communicates with the Mediterranean by the Dardanelles, and with the Black Sea by the Strait of Constantinople. Its waters are deep and without dangers to navigators.

Obs. 4. The Black Sea has an area of about 160,000 sq. m. Thongh it receives about a third part of the drainage of Europe its waters are only slightly less salt than those of the Atlantic. It is deep, free from rocks and islands, and easily navigable by skilful seamen ; but it is subject to strong N.E. winds, heavy fogs, and terrific thunder-storms.

3. Straits and Channels, the most important of which are

a. On the W. Skager-Rack (between Jutland and Norway), Kattegat

C