Singapore is an island at the S. extremity of the Malay Peninsula, from which it is separated by a narrow strait. Its area is 224 sq. m., and the numerous small islands adjacent to it form part of the Settlement. The Surface is generally low, undulating, and densely wooded; the Climate healthy, and the Soil well adapted to the growth of cocoa-nuts, spices, sugar-cane, tapioca, and fruits. The Chief Town is Singapore (city of lions), the capital and seat of government of the Straits Settlements. It lies on the S.E. coast of the island, and is a well-built and important seaport. Its Population is 61,752, and consists of Chinese, Malays, and Klings, or immigrants from S. India.

Penang or Prince of Wales' Island, and Province Wellesley. Prince of Wales Island lies 2 m. from the W. coast of the Malay peninsula and at the N. entrance of the Strait of Malacca. Its area is 106 sq. m. The Surface is mountainous in the N., where it reaches an elevation of 2,922 ft., in other parts level, or undulating. The Climate is salubrious, and the Soil fertile, producing rice, cocoa-nuts, coffee, sugar, spices, tobacco, indigo, gambier, and cotton: tin ore occurs at the base of the mountains. The Population is 61,747, consisting of Malays, Chinese, Klings, Europeans, and Americans,

Province Wellesley is a strip of territory on the W. coast of the peninsula, opposite to Penang. Its area is 236 sq. m., and Population 71,433. Its Surface is undulating, its Climate healthy, and its chief Productions rice, pepper, sugar, and cocoa-nuts. The Chief Town of the settlement is George Town, a seaport on Prince of Wales' Island, with a population of 30,729.

Malacca, lies on the W. coast of the Malay Peninsula. Its area is 640 sq. m., and its Population 77,756, consisting of Chinese, Malays, Indians, Eurasians, and Europeans. Its Surface is undulating and well wooded; its Climate healthy; and its chief Productions are pepper, valuable woods (ebony, aloe wood, &c.), ivory, and tin, of which there are rich mines at Naning. Malacca, the chief town, and a seaport, lies on both banks of the Malacca river, near its mouth. It possesses some good public buildings, and has a population of 24,370.

CHINA.

The name China is applied, 1. To the whole extent of the countries which constitute the Chinese Empire. 2. To China Proper.

THE CHINESE EMPIRE.

The Chinese Empire, or "The Celestial Empire," is, after Russia, the largest State in the world, and, after Siberia, the largest of the Asiatic countries. Its area is estimated at 4,538,115 sq. m., its greatest length, from E. to W. at about 3,000 m., its greatest breadth, from N. to S., at about 2,000 m. It lies in the centre of the E. side of the old continent, between the parallels 18° and 53° 30' N. lat. and, approximately, between the meridians 78° 30′ and 135° E. long., having Siberia, on the N. and N.E.2; the Sea of Japan, the Strait of Corea, the Yellow Sea, the Eastern Sea (Tung Hai), and the Strait of Formosa, on the E.; the China Sea, Annam, Burma, and Hindustan, on the S.; Hindustan, Turkestan, and Siberia, on the W. The Population is estimated at 434,500,000, the largest under any one government in the world. The coast-line is thought to be about 3,000 m. long.

The empire now comprises:-1, China Proper; 2, Leaotong; 3, Corea; 4, Mandchuria3; 5, Mongolia 3; 6, Tibet.

166 Approximately," because the W. limits are not accurately defined.

2 The former Chinese territory N. of the Amur and its tributary the Argun, and E. of the Amur and its tributary the Usuri, has been ceded to

Russia by treaty.

3 Mandchuria and Mongolia, together with E. Turkestan, are often classed together under the name of Chinese Tartary.

M

CHINA PROPER.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Latitude. Between 18° and 43° N. Longitude. Between 98° and 126° E.
Area. 1,553,530 sq. m.

Obs. China Proper is the richest and most populous part of the Empire.

POSITION AND BOUNDARIES.-China occupies the central part of E. Asia. It is bounded on the

N.1 by Mongolia, and Mandehuria. E. by Corea, the Yellow, and Eastern Seas, and the Strait of Formosa. S. by the China Sea, Annam, and Burma. W. by Tibet, and E. Turkestan.

COASTS.-The coasts are low, but interspersed with reaches of a bold and rocky character. They extend above 2000 m., and include numbers of excellent harbours. They are begirt with islands and, in places, so thickly that navigation is rendered perilous by them. The most notable coast features are the

1. Capes, Liao-Thie-Schan, and Cod.

2. Inlets, the Gulfs of Leao-tong, and Pechili; and the Bays of Corea, HangChow, Bias, and Mirs.

3. Straits, the Strait of Pechili, joining the Yellow Sea and the Gulf of Pechili; Strait of Formosa, leading from the Eastern Sea to the China Sea; and Hainan Strait, leading from the China Sea to the Gulf of Tung King. ISLANDS.-The chief islands of China Proper are Tsung Ming, Chusan, Formosa, Hong Kong, and Hainan.

Obs. 1. Formosa (Chin. Tai-wan) in the China Sea, about 100 m. E. of the Fo-kien province, of which it forms a part. Its area is 13,100 sq. m. Its Coasts are rocky and dangerous, but embrace some very good harbours. The Surface is divided, substantially, into two parts by the Muh-kan-shan Mts., which run from N. to S. The E. side is occupied by aborigines of the island, who are savages; the W. side covers an area of some 6,250 sq. m., and is occupied by Chinese. Its Climate is genial and healthy, and the Soil is rich. The Productions include rice, sugar, tea, camphor, indigo, coal, and other valuable commodities. The Capital is Taiwan-fu, which is situated near the W. coast.

Obs. 2. Hong Kong 2 (Fragrant Stream) is at the mouth of the Canton river, about 40 m. E. from Macao. It is an irregular ridge, stretching nearly E. and W.; its broken and abrupt peaks rising in places to a great height above the sea level. It is 29 sq. m. in extent, and is separated from China by the Ly-ee-Moon Pass. The island, together with the opposite peninsula of Kow-loon, forms the British colony of Hong Kong. The Population is 121,985, all of whom, except about 5,000 Europeans and Americans, are Chinese. Hong Kong is valuable to Great Britain chiefly as a factory for our commerce with China, and as a military and naval station for the protection of that commerce. The Chief Towns are Victoria, the capital, a free port on the N. coast, and Stanley, on the S. coast. SURFACE.-Two thirds of China Proper, the Western parts from N. to S., are mountainous; the S.E. districts are hilly; the N.E., low and flat. The principal surface features are the

1. Mountains, the chief of which are the

a. Yun-ling, which runs N. from the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the Hoang-Ho,

1 The celebrated, but useless rampart termed the "Great Wall" of China, stretching from the Yellow Sea to the 98th meridian, defines the N. boundary. It is about 1,600 m. long, and in parts

about 30 ft. high.

2 Hong Kong was ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and was erected into a colony in 1843. Kowloon was ceded to Great Britain in 1861.

forms the E. buttress of the lofty tablelands of Central Asia, and includes many snowy peaks.

b. Pe-ling or Northern Mts., which branch off from the Yun-ling, and stretch E. to the 112th meridian, where they break up into several lower ranges, the chief of which, Ton-shia-Shan range, runs S.E. to the banks of the Yang-tsze-Kiang. The Pe-ling range forms part of the great water-parting between the Hoang Ho and the Yang-tsze-Kiang.

c. Ta-pa-ling, which lies S. of the Pe-ling, and stretches from W. to S.E. between the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and its N. tributary the Han-Kiang.

d. Nan-ling or Southern Mts., which run E. from the Yun-ling, and bound the basin of the Si-Kiang or Canton river on the N. Many of its peaks are said to rise above the snow line.

e. Yu-ling, which also branches towards the E. from Yun-ling; it forms the S. boundary of the Si-Kiang.

2. Plains, of which there are many on the coasts, and among the hills of the S.E. The chief one is the

Great Plain of China, which occupies the N.E. of the country, and covers an area of 210,000 sq. m. It is 700 m. long, and from 150 m. to 400 m. broad. It is traversed by the Hoang-ho, and Yang-tsze-Kiang, the district between these rivers being low, swampy, and studded with lakes.

DRAINAGE.-The somewhat copious drainage of China Proper is carried down one vast slope which inclines E. towards the Pacific Ocean. The principal draining agents are the

1. Rivers, of which the most important are the Pei-Ho, Hoang-Ho, Yangtsze-Kiang, and Chu-Kiang or Canton River.

Obs. 1. The Pei-Ho (White River) is formed by the union of the Haen-Ho and Yun-Ho, and falls into the Gulf of Pechili.

Obs. 2. The Hoang-Ho (Yellow River) has its sources among the N. slopes of the Nan-Shan Mts. in long. 97° E., and is one of the most important rivers in Asia. Its length is 2,270 m., and it falls into the Gulf of Pechili. Its chief tributaries are the Wei-Ho, and the What-Ho.

Obs. 3. The Yang-tsze-kiang (Son of the Ocean) is formed by the union of three streams in the N. of Tibet, near the 80th meridian E., flows first S. E. and then N.E. to its outlet in the Yellow Sea. Its length is 3,450 m., and the area of its basin 800,000 sq. m. Its chief tributaries are the Han, on the left bank, and the Heng, and Kia on the right

Obs. 4. The Chu-kiang (Pearl River) or Canton River is the common estuary of the Pe-kiang, and Si-kiang.

2. Lakes, of which the chief are Toon-ting, Poo-Yang, and Tao. They all lie on the right bank of, and are drained by, the Yang-tsze-Kiang.

CLIMATE. The climate of China is characterised by extremes. The temperature is low as compared with the geographical position of the country. In the N. the summers are genial; and though the winters are cold they are dry. In the interior the climate is more equable; in the W. the cold from the mountains is much felt; while on the E. littoral, the natural asperity of the climate is considerably tempered by the sea.

PRODUCTIONS.-The chief productions of China are tea, silk, bamboos, cotton, indigo, rice, paper, and drugs-especially camphor,

1 Ho and Kiang are Chinese words for "river." 2 The Hoang-Ho takes its name from the vast quantities of yellow mud which it brings down.

3 The Yang-tsze-Kiang is also called Ta-Kiang ("the great river") and Kiang (="the river").

rhubarb, ginseng, and poppies; mercury, arsenic, coal, and salt, are found in various parts; lapis lazuli, in the W. provinces.

PEOPLE, AND LANGUAGE.-China proper has an estimated population of 404,946,514, who are nearly all Chinese and speak the Chinese language. Europeans and Americans make up the

remainder.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS.-China Proper is divided into 18 Provinces ; but since the conquest of the empire by the Mandchus, the transmural province of Shing King, or Leao-tong, has been added. These with their chief towns are as follows:

NOTES ON THE TOWNS.-The five most populous towns are Peking (1,650,000), Canton (1,500,000), Tien-tsin (950,000), Hankow (600,000), and Foo-chow (600,000).

Obs. Peking (Court of the North), the metropolis of China, lies about 100 m. N.W. of the Gulf of Pechili. It consists of two cities, each of which is encircled by high walls; the one to the N. being called the Interior, or Tartar city, and the one to the S. the Exterior, Chinese, or commercial city. Together they are 25 m. in circumference, and occupy an area of 28 sq. m. The N. city consists of three separate enclosures, the inner one containing the public and private palaces of the emperor; the middle one containing the public buildings; and the outer one, the trading community and several supreme tribunals of the Empire. The chief industries are printing, and the manufacture of coloured glass, idols, &c.

The chief ports are Canton, Tien-tsin, Hankow, Foo-chow, and Shanghai. The chief industrial centres are Peking, Canton (iron, brass, wood, and stone-work), Foo-chow (mining, cottons, porcelain, &c.), Shanghai (muslins, flowered silks, artificial flowers, gold, silver, and ivory wares), and Soo-Chow (silks, printing, &c.).

INDUSTRIES.-Agriculture is followed by the majority of the people, tea, rice, and vegetables being the principal objects of culture. Manufactures are mainly domestic, and include porcelain, silk, and cotton fabrics, paper, engraving, bell-casting, lacquered, and carved wares. Commerce is vast and varied, and includes the export of tea, silk, raw cotton, cotton stuffs, paper, ivory, and lacquered wares, salt, and borax; and the import of cotton and woollen goods, opium, wheat, spices, edible birds' nests, &c.

COMMUNICATIONS.-China is traversed in all directions by 20,000 Imperial Roads, and although they are, generally speaking, but badly kept, an enormous internal trade is carried on over them. An extensive system of Navigable Rivers and Canals compensates, to some extent, for the lack of good roads.

GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, AND RELIGION.-The Government of the State is based upon that of the family, and the Emperor is both temporal and spiritual sovereign. Education is under the superintendence of government officers, and is universal, and literary acquirements are made the test of fitness for all State employments. The Religion of the State and of the upper classes is Confucianism; that of the lower classes is mainly Buddhism, or the religion of Fo. Christianity is being actively propagated by missionaries of various denominations.

Obs. The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction of the Interior Council Chamber, which consists of 4 members, and 2 assistants from the Great College, who have to see that everything is done according to the civil and religious laws of the empire.

MANDCHURIA.

This division of the Empire lies in the N.E., covers an area of 306,700 sq. m., and is bounded by Russia on the N. W., N., and N.E.; by Corea, and the province of Leao-tong on the S.; and by Mongolia, and Russia on the W. The surface is mountainous in the W., N., and E.; the chief mountains are the Khingan, in the W.; the Ilichuri Alin, in the N.; and the Shan Alin ranges in the E. Mandehuria is copiously watered, being traversed by the Amur, on the N., and by the Sungari, and Usuri, tributaries of the Amur, in the centre and S.E. respectively. The climate is one of extremes, being excessively hot in summer, and very cold in winter; and the chief productions are wheat, barley, rye, hemp, cotton, ginseng, and rhubarb. The population is 12,000,000, and consists of Chinese and Mandchus principally. Mandehuria is divided into two great provinces by the Sungari River, viz., Kirin Oola in the S.E.; and Helung Tsian in the N.W. The chief towns are Kirin Oola, capital of the province of the same name, on the right bank of the Upper Sungari; and Tsi-tsi-har, capital of the Helung Tsian, on the Nonni river. The chief industries are agriculture and boat-building.

COREA.

Corea consists for the most part of a great peninsula which projects S. between the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea. Its area is estimated at upwards of 91,398 sq. m. The interior of the country is but little known. Near the coast, from N. to S., runs the Pepi Shan Mountains, and on the N. frontier the Shanjan Alin range. The chief rivers are the Ura, and the Tiumen. The climate is, generally, severe; the chief productions, grain-rice, wheat, millet-wine, fruits, tobacco, ginseng, etc. The population is estimated at 8,500,000, and is of Mongolian origin. The capital is Kiung, in the S.W. of the peninsula. The chief industries are agriculture and commerce. The government of the country is an absolute monarchy; the religion is Buddhism; education is general and keenly appreciated.