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conjunction of organs, generated and elaborated into their present shapes."-Philosophy of History, pp. 22, 23, where the authorities for these statements are indicated.

NOTE IX., page 73.

EPICUREAN MATERIALISM.

For Epicurus and his doctrines our chief sources of information are the writings of Diogenes Laertius, Lucretius, and Cicero. In the general history of philosophy by Maurice, Lewes, Zeller, Ueberweg, &c., Epicureanism is well discussed; also in Lange's 'Geschichte des Materialismus,' and Carrau's 'La Morale Utilitaire' (1875). But probably the most important work on the subject is Guyau's 'La Morale d'Epicure et ses rapports avec les doctrines contemporaines' (1878).

The study of Lucretius owes much in this country to Munro's masterly edition of the 'De rerum natura.' The literature regarding the greatest poet of materialism is extensive. I must be content to specify the magnificent essay on the genius of Lucretius in Professor Sellar's 'Roman Poets of the Republic;' the thoughtful and beautiful little treatise of Professor Veitch, entitled 'Lucretius and the Atomic Theory;' and the interesting volume by Mr Mallock in Blackwood's "Ancient Classics for English Readers."

NOTE X., page 75.

MATERIALISM IN THE Middle Ages.

Lange devotes eighty pages of his 'History of Materialism' to the middle ages. He presents to us in them, however, instead of a properly historical narrative and exposition, merely general dissertations on the relation. of the monotheistic religions to materialism - on the Aristotelian doctrine of matter and form and its influence on scholasticism—and on the return of materialistic views with the revival of the sciences. It may be a matter of opinion whether these dissertations are profound or superficial, clear or confused; but no person who has made any study of medieval history is likely to regard them as learned. The author obviously knew nothing whatever at first hand, and little even at second hand, concerning medieval writers. Hence he substitutes for them Humboldt and Liebig, J. S. Mill, Sir W. Hamilton, Trendelenburg, Fortlage, &c.

A history of theoretical materialism in the middle ages could not be written, for the simple reason that there was none to write. A historical account might have been given, however, of the course of medieval thought respecting the nature of matter and the problem of its eternity or non-eternity; the materialistic views which were entertained as to the character and origin of life and soul might have been indicated; and the manifestations of ethical materialism during the period might have been described. A considerable amount of information as to the discussion of the problem of the eternity and non-eternity of matter will be found

in Rabbi Schmiedl's 'Studien' and in Kaufmann's

'Attributenlehre.'

NOTE XI., page 83.

MATERIALISM OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES.

Lange's account of the relation of Gassendi to materialism seems to me to be one-sided. The learned and worthy priest, by distinctly maintaining that the atoms of matter were not eternal, and by elaborately arguing that they merely explained physical things-by representing them as created ex nihilo by the Divine Will-and by strenuously defending both the immateriality and the immortality of the soul,-did at least as much to dissociate atomism from materialism as to further the cause of materialism by his atomism. He may be fairly held to have been rather the precursor of that long series of rational assailants of materialism, which included in England such men as Cudworth, Henry More, John Smith, Richard Bentley, &c., of whom, strangely enough, Lange appears never to have heard-than the coryphæus of modern materialism itself. The account given of the system of Gassendi by Damiron in his 'Essai sur l'Histoire de la Philosophie en France au xvii. siècle,' (t. i.), is fuller and truer.

Lange does not seem to have been aware of the attempts made by Overton, Dodwell, and Coward, during the seventeenth century and the early years of the eighteenth century, to prove the soul material and natu

rally mortal, or of the discussions to which these attempts gave rise.

It is a pleasure to be able to recognise that Lange's account of the French materialism of the eighteenth century is at once extremely able and generally correct.

Among the French writers belonging to the latter half of the eighteenth century who may fairly be classed as atheists were, besides La Mettrie (1709-1751) and Von Holbach (1723-1789), Diderot (1713-1784), Helvetius (1715-1771), D'Alembert (1717-1783), Lalande (17321807), Naigeon (1738-1810), Condorcet (1743-1794), and Maréchal (1750-1803). La Mettrie, Diderot, Helvetius, and D'Alembert may be regarded as forming an earlier, and Lalande, Naigeon, Condorcet, and Maréchal a later group, with Von Holbach as the connecting link.

Diderot's scepticism assumed the form of materialistic atheism, or materialistic pantheism, only after he became an associate of Holbach. He is the subject of two elaborate and excellent works--the one by Rosenkranz and the other by J. Morley. Almost half a century ago, when the materials for forming an estimate of his character were much less abundant than now, and wholly unassorted, it was divined by Mr Carlyle with the true insight of genius, and portrayed with a skill which has not since been matched.

Helvetius avoided a frank avowal of materialism, but his entire doctrine-one deeply stained with sensual and selfish principles-implied it. Perhaps the best exposition and criticism of it will be found in Cousin's 'Hist. de la Phil. Mor. au dix-huitième siècle,' leçons iv., v.

D'Alembert gave expression to his views regarding religion only in his private conversation and correspon

dence. He had a clear perception of some of the difficulties to an acceptance of materialism. And hence, notwithstanding his intimacy with Diderot, his unbelief assumed rather an agnostic than a materialistic form. He was the only morally worthy, or even morally decent man, belonging to the older atheistical group. Its three other members had some good qualities, but they were shamelessly impure, licentious, and untruthful. It is a significant but lamentable fact that sympathy with their sceptical views should have of late led many literary men to eulogise their characters, to exaggerate their good qualities, and to ignore or excuse their vices.

Lalande is known almost entirely by his distinguished services to science; but he actively assisted his friend Maréchal in propagating atheism. He contributed largely to the 'Dictionnaire des Athées.'

Condorcet a man of noble and generous nature-was an enthusiast for the philosophy which explains everything by matter and sensation. In my article "Condorcet," in the 'Ency. Brit.,' a general view of his life and teaching will be found, with references to the best. sources of information regarding him.

Naigeon and Maréchal were fanatical preachers of the gospel according to Diderot and Holbach. The numerous writings of both are at present deservedly forgotten; but of course, in a time when the literary discoveries of materialists are not less remarkable than their scientific achievements, no one can be sure but that Naigeon may be speedily announced to have been equal to Newton-and Maréchal to have really been, what he aspired to be, another Lucretius.

Laplace was reputed to be an atheist by some of his contemporaries. In his writings he seems to have stu

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