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be regarded as the greatest fiasco the world has ever witnessed.

Lange's history has been translated into English by Mr Thomas, and into French by Professor Nolen. The French translator is the author of three able articles on the book-two essays published in the 'Révue Philosophique' (October and December 1877), and a memoir read before the Academie des Sciences, Morales, et Politiques, and published in a separate form (Paris, Reinwald & Co., 1877). Vaihinger's 'Hartmann, Dühring, und Lange' is an important and instructive book, although its author is far too enthusiastic an admirer of Lange.

NOTE VI., page 47.

CHINESE MATERIALISM.

The essay of Yang Choo was translated into English by Dr Legge in the prolegomena to the edition of 'Mencius,' contained in his Chinese classics. The works of Licius, to whom it owes its preservation and transmission, have recently been completely translated into German by Ernest Faber, in his 'Naturalismus bei den alten Chinesen' (1877).

There is said to be comparatively little theoretical materialism in China, although practical materialism is nowhere more prevalent. We know, however, very little about the course of Chinese thought from the eleventh century to the present time. Probably Chinese scholars have at length done something like justice to the ancient

classics of the celestial empire. If so, it is extremely to be desired that they would now direct their attention to the study of its later literature and philosophy.

NOTE VII., page 49.

HINDU MATERIALISM.

The Charvaka system is described in the 'Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha,' which has been translated into English by Professor Cowell. The part of the work which relates to the Charvaka doctrine will be found in the 'Pandit,' vol. ix., No. 103, pp. 162-166.

All the Hindu systems of philosophy, except Vedantism, expressly teach the eternity of a material principle from which the universe has been evolved, but they also teach the eternity of soul. The Vaiseshika system is a physical philosophy based on an atomic theory. It explains all material objects, and changes by the aggregation, disintegration, and redintegration of uncaused, eternal, imperceptible, indivisible atoms; but it differs from the atomism of Democritus in at least two respects -it assigns to the atoms qualitative distinctions, and it does not represent them as capable of constituting souls. It is doubtful whether or not its founder, Kanada, and some of his followers, believed in a supreme spirit. Each soul was supposed to be eternal, and infinitely extended or ubiquitous, although only knowing, feeling, and acting where the body is. The Vaiseshika aphorisms of Kanada, with comments from two Hindu expositors,

have been translated by Professor A. E. Gough (Benares, 1873). For general accounts of the system, consult Colebrooke's 'Essays,' and Monier Williams's 'Indian Wisdom.'

The Sankhya system is atheistical, and approaches nearly to materialism, notwithstanding that it affirms the eternity of innumerable distinct souls. It assigns activity and self-consciousness not to soul but to nature. Its general doctrines may be thus summarised: 1°. Its aim is to make impossible human pain by arresting the course of transmigration. 2o. It professes to accomplish this by means of science. 3. It represents science as consisting of a thorough knowledge of the developed principle or the world, of the undeveloped principle or nature, and of the soul. 4°. It also represents it as a knowledge of twenty-five elements of things and categories of intelligence, which may, however, be all reduced to nature and soul. 5°. It expresses the relations of the twenty-five principles to one another in the following formula: "Nature, root of all, is no product; seven principles are products, and productive; sixteen are products only; soul is neither a product nor productive."

The chief sources of information as to the Sankhya philosophy are accessible to students unacquainted with Sanscrit. Most of the Sutras of Kapila have been translated into French by B. St Hilaire, in the 'Mémoires de l'Institut' for 1852. There is an English translation of the first book, as also of a Hindu commentary on it, by Dr Ballantyne. Of the valuable production called the Karika, there are no less than five European translations -Lassen's, Panthier's, Windischman's, Colebrooke's, and St Hilaire's. The volume which contains Colebrooke's translation comprises also two commentaries on the

Karika,-one by Professor H. H. Wilson; and another, which he has rendered from the vernacular into English, and is, consequently, a book of the highest importance to a student of the Sankhya system. It was published in 1837, under the auspices of the Oriental Society.

There is an article by Dr Muir, on "Indian Materialists," in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,' vol. xix.

NOTE VIII., page 54.

EARLY GREEK MATERIALISM.

See Mullach's 'Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum,' pp. 340-377, for what remains of the writings of Democritus. The accounts of his system given by Hegel, Zeller, Lange, Grote, and Ferrier may be specified as of exceptional ability and interest.

Lange connects Empedocles with Democritus, on the ground that he was the first to put forth the idea of the gradual natural development of organised beings. Anaximander is better entitled to this distinction. His conception of development was also much more like Darwin's than was that of Empedocles, inasmuch as it supposed an advance from simple to complex forms, or a process of differentiation, whereas the Empedoclean view was that of a combination of heterogeneous organs. If the great merit of a biological hypothesis, however, be, as Lange fancies, the setting aside of the idea of final causes, the latter notion may claim a certain superiority;

indeed, from this point of view, absurdity itself is an advantage. A natural orderly development cannot possibly help to disprove the existence of a final cause or of a supreme reason.

I have elsewhere had occasion to make the following remarks regarding the two philosophers above mentioned: "Anaximander, one of the earliest of Greek philosophers, working out his idea of the Infinite or Unconditioned being the first principle of the universe, arrived both at a sort of rude nebular hypothesis and a sort of rude development hypothesis. From the arepov, or primitive unconditioned matter, through an inherent and eternal energy and movement, the two original contraries of heat and cold separate: what is cold settles down to the centre, and so forms the earth; what is hot ascends to the circumference, and so originates the bright, shining, fiery bodies of heaven, which are but the fragments of what once existed as a complete shell or sphere, but in time burst and broke up, and so gave rise to the stars. The action of the sun's heat on the watery earth next generated films or bladders, out of which came different kinds of imperfectly organised beings, which were gradually developed into the animals which now live. Man's ancestors were fishlike creatures which dwelt in muddy waters, and only, as the sun slowly dried up the earth, became gradually fitted for life on dry land. A similar view was held by the poet, priest, prophet, and philosopher Empedocles. He taught that out of the four elements of earth, air, fire, and water, and under the moving power of Love resisting Hate, plants, animals, and man were in succession, and after many an effort, and many a futile

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