and approved places either by the side of, or in the place of, the customs of our ancestors, we are sensibly impressed with one important fact-that these very signs which herald the approach of a yet more economical system of agriculture, and proclaim the firm, steady march of improvement upon improvement, warn us that those who do not vigilantly watch the advent of each new-born pledge which the prolific union between science and practice will assuredly give birth to, must inevitably be passed by, and left behind in some obscure by-roads to waste their remaining days in lamenting the loss of the bold independence of their forefathers, and in bidding sad farewells to that material prosperity which flourishes around them, but is no longer within their reach.

VII.-Notes on the Geology of the Keythorpe Estate, and its relations to the Keythorpe System of Draining. By JOSHUA TRIMMER, F.G.S.

In various communications to the Royal Agricultural Society and the Geological Society, I have insisted on the following points :1. The important influence exercised by the superficial deposits on the distribution of soils.

2. The division of those deposits into erratic tertiaries, or northern drift, and warp-drift.

3. The division of the erratic tertiaries again into upper and lower erratics: the lower erratics consisting of boulder clay, possessing peculiar characters found in no other marine strata ; the upper erratics composed of rolled gravel and sand, approaching more the characters of ordinary tertiary strata, but distinguished from them by certain marked peculiarities.

4. The distinctness of the warp-drift - a deposit which generally forms the surface-soil,--and its subsequent origin to that of the erratic tertiaries; its presence in those districts where the erratic tertiaries are absent, and its diffusion over their denuded surface where they are present.

5. The indented surface of the beds, whether of the erratic tertiaries or of the older strata, on which the warp-drift rests, presenting a series of irregular ridges and furrows.

6. I suggested that the contradictory statements which abound respecting the superior efficacy of deep or shallow drains, of drains at wide or narrow intervals, of drains following the fall of the ground, or crossing it, might, perhaps, in many cases be reconciled by observing whether the drains were parallel or transverse to these natural furrows and ridges.

In corroboration of these views I referred to a statement made

by Mr. Austen in a communication to the Geological Society, to the effect that the occupiers of soils near Guildford, resting upon a subsoil of clay so furrowed, had found that drains across the ridges and furrows dried a much larger area than drains parallel to them.

When these views were announced in a lecture before the Royal Agricultural Society, it appeared that a system of draining by drains transverse to these furrows and ridges, called in Leicestershire" claybanks," had been practised for many years by Lord Berners at Keythorpe, with great success, both as regards efficacy and economy; and that these results had been obtained by the tentative process, without any reference to geological investigations, which they so beautifully confirm. Having recently had an opportunity, through the kindness of Lord Berners, of examining the Keythorpe estate, with the advantage of his Lordship's explanations on the spot respecting the depth, distances, and direction of the drains and of the trial holes by which those points were determined, I propose in this communication to give a slight sketch of the geology of the estate, and of the Keythorpe system of draining. I give the latter in the hope that Lord Berners may be induced to illustrate this part of the subject by the publication of some of those details of which his Lordship possesses the most minute and elaborate records, proving incontestably the economy of the system. Its efficiency must be evident to all who have witnessed the present condition of the land.

Geology of the Keythorpe Estate.-The whole of this property which I have seen is on the lias, and principally on that part of the lias called the marlstone; the lias in this portion of its range is less known to geologists than nearer its northern and southern extremities; the marlstone part of the series appears to consist here chiefly of clay, with some alternating beds of sandstone; the former yields an excellent building stone, as the buildings on the estate, including Keythorpe Hall, abundantly testify. A stone approaching the character of the Uppingham stone (at the junction of the lias and inferior oolite), and suitable for barnfloors and for quoins, was found in digging a pond at Old Keythorpe. Though these beds of sandstone and limestone are only worked at one or two points on the estate, there can be little doubt that they might be found at accessible depths on other parts of it and on the neighbouring properties, if it were deemed desirable to search for them by boring along the strike of the strata.* I have reason to believe that the Cleveland ironstone,

With men expert in the use of boring tools, and a judicious selection of the points for boring, it is surprising how cheaply ground may be proved in this way to the depth of 15 or 20 feet, in the absence of obstruction from beds of stone. Such obstruction would in this case be the discovery of the thing sought.

respecting the geological position of which little is known, is situated in the marlstone division of the lias. This point should be determined by a careful examination of the strata in which it occurs, at the localities where it is worked, and by tracing their outcrop through the intermediate space.

The estate contains soils all ranking as clay, but of very different values; the value, in their natural state, varying from less than 20s. to more than 50s. Under the ordinary system of Leicestershire management, they are devoted almost exclusively to permanent pasture and summer grazing. By draining and subsoiling, or double ploughing, portions have been converted into arable land, which yields splendid crops of swedes, wurzel, and clover, thus furnishing a valuable auxiliary to the grass-land for the winter feeding of stock.

By the system of draining pursued, the worst soils of this estate, whether converted to arable or retained as pasture, have been doubled in value.

These

The natural variations of these soils do not arise from variations in the mineral characters of the substrata of lias, but from variations in the distribution of the superficial deposits. consist of the three varieties which I have enumerated—namely, boulder clay, or lower erratic tertiaries; gravel and sand of the upper erratics; and warp-drift. The lower erratics present their usual form of boulder-clay or till, and contain large chalk flints, subangular fragments of chalk, and other detritus extraneous to the lias; the upper erratics consist of gravel containing chalk flints, and so much limestone that the larger fragments are collected for lime-burning: both deposits have been much denuded. From the rarity of sections, and from the covering of warp-drift, the boulder-clay is not often exposed; but some holes, which Lord Berners caused to be opened for my inspection, clearly established its presence, and showed that the rolled gravel rests upon it. I observed similar boulder-clay, several years ago, on the summit of the oolitic ridge near Desborough.

The gravel covers many of the tabular hills of lias at Keythorpe, to the depth of 12 and 15 feet.

The variations of soil follow the analogies which I have observed in other districts. The poorest soils are upon the steep sides of the hills where there is little or no covering of warpdrift on the lias clay. There are better soils on the summits of the hills, consisting of a warp-drift of clay or clay-loam resting on the rolled gravel. These soils are valued at 30s. the acre. The best soils of all are in the bottoms of the valleys, or on the long slopes where there is a deep covering of warp-drift. These are valued at from 40s. to 60s.

The estate constitutes an upland district near the head waters

of the Welland. If we follow its stream downwards for eight or nine miles, we find in its valley still richer grazing-grounds, consisting of deep warp-drift, holding a position intermediate between the mowing-grounds, which are alluvial, and the poorer soils on the steep sides of the hills bounding the valley, where there is scarcely any warp-drift, and where the strata of lias are either at the surface or near to it.

On my suggesting that it would be worth trying, whether some of the finer calcareous gravel would not be a beneficial dressing for these clay soils, Lord Berners recollected that some had been spread several years since on some pasture land, and also on part of an arable field consisting of some of the stiffest clay on the estate; a considerable superiority has been observed on the crops of the arable field so treated. This superiority, however, had hitherto been attributed to a difference in the cultivation and rotation. On the pasture land, which had been covered with this gravel to the depth of 1 or 2 inches, no ambiguity could arise from those causes; and there also the improvement was very manifest. In consequence of the suggestion which I offered having brought these points to remembrance, these experiments will be repeated. Knowing that limestonegravel forms the staple mineral manure of Ireland, and seeing the result of previous experiments at Keythorpe, I look with great interest, and with the utmost confidence of success, to those now in contemplation.

The Keythorpe System of Draining.-The peculiarities of the Keythorpe system of draining consist in this-that the parallel drains are not equidistant, and that they cross the line of greatest descent. The usual depth is 3 feet, but some are as deep as 5 and 6 feet. The depth and width of interval are determined by digging trial-holes, in order to ascertain not only the depth at which the bottom water is reached, but the height to which the water rises in the holes, and the distance at which a drain will lay the hole dry. In sinking these holes clay-banks are found with hollows or furrows between them, which are filled with a more porous soil, as represented in the annexed sectional diagram.

b Clay banks of lias or of boulder-clay.

c A more porous warp-drift filling furrows between the clay-banks.

The next object is to connect these furrows by drains laid across them. The result is, that as the furrows and ridges here run along the fall of the ground, which I have observed to be the case generally elsewhere, the submains follow the fall, and the parallel drains cross it obliquely.

The intervals between the parallel drains are irregular, varying, in the same field, from 14 to 21, 31, and 59 feet. The distances are determined by opening the diagonal drains at the greatest distance from the trial-holes, at which experience has taught the practicability of its draining the hole. If it does not succeed in accomplishing the object, another drain is opened in the interval. It has been found, in many cases, that a drain crossing the clay-banks and furrows takes the water from holes lying lower down the hill; that is to say, it intercepts the water flowing to them through these subterranean channels. The parallel drains, however, are not invariably laid across the fall. The exceptions are on ground where the fall is very slight, in which case they are laid along the line of greatest descent. On such ground there are few or no clay-banks and furrows.

The greater part of the estate had previously been drained with drains 2 to 24 feet deep, laid along the line of greatest descent, and they had proved a complete failure. The present system has stood the test of about 15 years' experience; and of its efficiency there can be no question. Lord Berners does not consider a field sufficiently drained till sheep can consume the turnips on the ground upon these strong soils without poaching the land. The difference in the texture of the soil before and after draining is very remarkable. A tenacious clay appears converted into a friable loam. With regard to the economy of the system, that will be best shown by comparing it with that of equidistant drains, laid along the declivity at the distances suited to such a soil, stating the difference between the two systems in perches of drain and hundreds of tiles per acre. By these means the calculation is freed from all complexity arising from local variations in the wages of labour and cost of pipes, tiles, or broken stones. The saving in length of drain and quantity of materials for forming the conduit, are constant quantities for that description of soil, wherever situated; the money value of labour and materials varies in different localities. There are, moreover, great discrepancies in practice with respect to the nature of the conduit. Some prefer pipes of an inch bore, some like larger diameters; some advocate cylindrical pipes, others pipes with a flat sole; some prefer them with collars, some without; while others think sufficient water-way cannot be obtained except with the old horseshoe tiles and soles. Lastly, there are some localities to which broken stones are better