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UNEARNED INCREMENT-UNION UNIVERSITY

pervading medium, called the luminiferous æther. The waves are supposed to be propagated by vibrations of æther particles in directions perpendicular to the line of propagation.

Unearned Increment. That portion of the value of land which arises from the general advance of the community in wealth and population, not from any effort or sacrifice of the landowner.

Ungava Bay. Projection of Hudson's Strait into n.w. Labrador.

Unger, FRANZ, 1800-1870. Prof. of Botany at Vienna 1850. Die exantheme der Pflanzen, 1833; Ueber den Einfluss des Bodens, 1836; Ueber den Bau und das Wachsthum des Dicotyledonenstammes, 1840; Genera et species plantarum fossilium 1850; Die fossile Flora, 1850-67; Anatomie und Physiologie der Pflanzen, 1855.

Unger, JOSEPH. b. 1828. Prof. of Jurisprudence at Prague 1853, and Vienna 1857; Minister of State; pres. Supreme Court 1881; writer on law.

Unger, WILHELM, b.1837. Prof. Vienna; etcher. His work is distinguished by strength and freedom. Among his noted plates are: La Ronde du Miet, after Rembrandt; Catharine Canaro, after Makart; and Portraits, after Velasquez.

Unguents. See OINTMENTS.

Unguiculate. Furnished with an unguis or claw, as the petals or sepals of many flowers.

Ungula Spherical, or WEDGE. Solid bounded by a spherical lune and the planes of the circles forming the lune. Its edge is a diameter of the sphere.

Ungulata (HOOFED MAMMALS). In a restricted sense this group comprises only the Diplarthra (Ferissodactyla and Artiodactyla), mammals with cotyledonary non-deciduate placenta; but resent discoveries of Tertiary vertebrates in w. U. S. have so filled the gaps which separate the various groups of

Uniformitarianism. Doctrine in Geology, of which
changes which the earth has undergone have been produced
Lyell was the strongest exponent, maintaining that the past
by causes still in action. The doctrine has been pushed by
some of its more recent advocates to extreme conclusions,
against which a reaction has set in.

Uniformity, ACTS OF. Enforcing the use of the English
Prayer-book 1549, and its revised forms 1552, 1558, and 1662.
The last caused the ejection of some 2,000 nonconforming
clergy, and was revoked 1689.

Unigenitus. Bull of Pope Clement XI.. Sept. 8, 1713,
virtually condemning Jansenism through 101 statements of
Quesnel. It caused great ecclesiastical commotions in France.
Unilabiate. Having one lip, as some gamopetalous co-
rollas; or apparently one-lipped by the splitting of the tube
of the corolla down one side, as in the Ligulatæ.

Unilateral. One-sided, or with parts arranged along one

side.

Unilocular. In Biology, one-chambered ovary or other hollow organ.

Unimak. Alaskan island, largest of the Aleutian group and nearest mainland; ab. 50 m. by 20.

Union. See UNITED KINGDOM.

Union Christian College. Coeducational institution, founded 1859 at Merom, Ind., by a denomination called Christians.

Lamelli

Union College. See UNION UNIVERSITY. Unionidæ (NAJADES, FRESHWATER MUSSELS). branchs, with short siphons produced by the free apposition of the edges of the mantle, for a short distance. The valves of the shell are equal, but unsymmetrical; they are united by two adductor muscles, and covered externally by a smooth epidermis, and internally by a pearly layer. The foot has a

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Feet of Ungulata: A, Tapir; B, Rhinoceros; C, Pig. Placentalia that certain authors include the Subungulates of the section Zonaria (including the Taxeopoda, Proboscida, and Amblypoda) and the Proungulates of the section Discoidea (including the Bunotheria and Rodentia), all of the division Deciduata. It appears probable that the character of the placenta cannot be used strictly for purposes of classification.

Unguligrade. Having the toes furnished with hoofs, as in the Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla.

Uniates. Greeks, Maronites, and other Eastern Christians, subject to Rome, but retaining their peculiar rites, discipline, and liturgical languages.

Unicapsular. Dry compound fruit.

Unicellular. Consisting of but one cell, as does the entire body in most of the Protozoa and Protophyta.

Unicorn. Mythical one-horned horse, believed in by the ancients. The word thus tr. in O. T. probably means the wild ox or buffalo. See MONODONTIDE and RHINOCEROTIDÆ.

Unicorn-Plant. Martynia proboscidea. Odorous, pubescent, coarse herb of the natural order Pedalineæ, bearing fleshy, long-beaked pods; cultivated as a vegetable; native of the s. w. U. S.

Unifoliolate. Compound leaf composed of a single leaflet, in the barberry; distinguished from simple leaves by the presence of an articulation at the base of the leaflet.

as

Stream Pearl-Mussel (Margaritana margaritifera). On the right is a half-open example with mantle pearl. 1-8, different forms of pearls. sharp edge; the gills are united posteriorly. The outer pair young. Here belong Anodon and Unio, the freshwater clams. of gills also function as a brood pouch for the developing Some species of this family produce pearls of considerable value. A collection from Wis. was exhibited at the World's in Arkansas 1897. See PEARLS. Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. Many were discovered

crowns,

Union Jack. National banner of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The first one was proclaimed 1606, three years after the union of the English and Scottish It was a combination of the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew. On the union with Ireland the cross of St. Patrick was introduced. It consists of a blue ground, with the upright cross of St. George, in red. edged with white; and the saltire or diagonal cross of St. Patrick, red, edged on one side by the cross of St. Andrew, white.

Union Theological Seminary. In New York: Presbyterian, but open to all and free from ecclesiastical control; founded 1836: incorporated 1839; removed from University Place to 700 Park Avenue, Sept. 1884. It has 13 instructors, 134 students. over 1,800 graduates, and a library of 71,576 vols.

Union University. At Schenectady, N. Y.; chartered 1795 as Union Coll. Its present title was assumed 1873, when the Albany Medical Coll. and Law School, with the Dudley Observatory, were united under one board. In 1881 the Coll. of Pharmacy was organized. Pres. E. Nott directed the institution most successfully 1804-66. It was the first non-secta

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Unit. Quantity taken together as a basis of comparison and combination. The abstract unit, one, is the base to which all finite quantity is referred.

Unitarians. Christians who deny the divinity of Christ; in the U. S., originally seceders from Trinitarian Congregationalism 1812 and later. They have ab. 437 congregations and 68,250 members, especially in New England. The movement was earlier but less extensive in England. It was anticipated at the Reformatian by Socinus.

Unitas Fratrum. See MORAVIANS.

United Armenians. Those subject to Rome; chiefly in the Turkish empire. Previous to the massacres there were ab. 100,000, with a patriarch, 6 abps., and 16 bishops.

United Brethren in Christ. Sect distinct from the Moravians, organized in Pa. 1800 by P. W. Otterbein (17261813); resembling the Methodists, but with quadrennial bishops. They have ab. 2,140 ministers, 4,200 congregations, and 210,000 communing members.

United Christians of St. Thomas. In s. India; mostly subject to Rome since 1599: these number ab. 235,000. See CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS.

United Copts. R.C. Egyptians, numbering ab.12,000, and in Abyssinia possibly more.

United Evangelical Church. Lutheran and Reformed, united and established in Prussia since 1817.

United Greeks. Those subject to Rome; most numerous (over 4,000,000) in Austria-Hungary, under the Ruthenian rite. Others are in Poland and elsewhere.

United Irishmen. Secret organization formed ab.1793, designed to unite Catholics and Protestants in an attempt to establish a republic in Ireland. Its founder, Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763-1798), was arrested and sentenced to death by a military commission 1798, when he committed suicide. It ceased to exist when Ireland was united with Gt. Britain 1801.

United Kingdom. That of Gt. Britain, formed 1707 by England and Scotland, which had been under one sovereign from 1603, but as separate states, each having its own parliament. Ireland was added 1801.

United Nestorians. Roman Catholics of the Syrian rite dating from 1553; also called Chaldean Christians.

United Oriental Rites. See UNIATES.

United Original Seceders. Scottish body, formed 1820. See PRESBYTERIANS.

United Presbyterian Church OF N. AMERICA. Union, formed 185, of Associate and Reformed synods. It has ab. 900 ministers and 120,000 members. The kindred body in Scotland, formed 1847 by union of the Secession and Relief synods, has ab. 580 ministers and 192,000 members. See PRESBYTERIANS.

United Provinces. Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, and other Dutch States, associated 1579 against Spanish tyranny.

United Secession Church. Religious body which was formed by the union of the Associate and General Associate Synods of Scotland in 1820 and united to the United Presbyterian Ch. in 1847.

United Society of Believers. See SHAKERS.

United States. Republic of N. America, by far the largest, most populous and powerful on the w. continent. Its area is 3,026,500 sq. m. (excluding Alaska, which has 530,000). It extends from long. 67° to 124° W. and from lat. 24° 30′ to 49° N. The w. part consists of a broad elevated tableland, extending from the n. to the s. boundary and from long. 105° W. nearly to the Pacific: this plateau is capped by many mountain ranges, trending nearly n. and s., parallel to its general direction, the highest being upon its e. and w. borders. The elevation of the plateau ranges from 10.000 ft. in central Col. down to 4,000 ft. near the n. and s. boundaries, while the mountain ranges rise from 4,000 ft. to 8,000 ft. higher, with many summits ex

ceeding 14,000 ft. The e. slope of this plateau consists of the great plains, a long, gentle incline. A second system of elevation is found in the e. part of the country, known as the Appalachian system. It trends in a direction nearly n.e. and s. w., extending from Me. to Ala. In length, breadth, and altitude it is much inferior to the w. system. Between these two systems of elevations is a great depression or plain, the s. and greater part of which is drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, while the n. part is occupied by the system of the Great Lakes. E. of the Appalachians is a plain extending with a gentle incline to the Atlantic coast, known as the Atlantic plain. The average elevation of the country is 2.600 ft.

The streams of the Atlantic plain are comparatively short, and few are navigable above the head of tide. On the n. boundary is a series of great lakes, drained by the St. Lawrence. The Mississippi is one of the great rivers of the world. With its numerous large branches, it drains an area of ab. 1,250,000 sq. m., and has a navigable length of ab. 10,000 m. It drains not only the great valley but the w. slopes of the Appalachians and the e. slopes of the w. mountain system. The principal streams of the Pacific from this region are the Columbia, Sacramento, and Colorado. Much of the interior of the plateau is drained to neither ocean.

The n. part of the Atlantic coast is rugged and broken. From N. Y. s. to and around the Gulf, the coast is low and sandy, with reefs extending along the shore, protecting marshy areas or bays behind them. The whole Atlantic coast abounds in deep bays and excellent harbors. The Pacific coast is bluff and rocky, with deep water immediately off shore, and very few

harbors.

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it is less than 40°. as also in the high plateau region of Col., Wy., and Mont. The range between summer and winter is, in general, great as compared with that of more humid countries, and becomes still more accented in the w. plateau region. The rainfall, too, varies through wide limits. It is heaviest upon the immediate Gulf coast, where it averages ab. 60 in. annually, and diminishes gradually n., and more rapidly w., being in the region about the Great Lakes from 30 to 40, on the w. plateaus 10 or 15, and in some regions not more than 4 or 5 in. Upon the n.w. coast there is a heavy rainfall, brought there by the warm air currents of the Pacific, which is deposited on the narrow strip of land w. of the Cascades. The e. and s. parts of the U. S. are, or were originally, covered with forests, which in the more densely settled parts have been largely cut away. Bordering this timbered area is a prairie region, forming a belt of separation between the forest area and the treeless plains, and including parts of Tex.. I. T., Kan., Mo., Ill., Ind., Mich., Wis., Ia., Minn., and N. and S. Dak. From this region w. to the base of the mountains extend the Great Plains, which are almost entirely devoid of trees. Within the mountain region, the valleys, plains, and plateaus are generally treeless. The mountains are as a rule covered with forests, and upon the Cascades, and throughout the region w. of them to the Pacific, the country is densely covered with valuable timber. The lumber industry is very large. See FORESTRY and TIMBER.

The mineral resources are very great. Anthracite coal is extensively mined in Pa., and bituminous coal in a majority of the States and Territories. The distribution of iron ore is equally wide. but it is mined on a large scale mainly on the upper peninsula of Mich., and in Ala. and Pa. The precious metals are mined mainly in the w. States and Territories, copper principally on the upper peninsula of Mich. and in the w.

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Lead is mined in the w. in connection with silver, in s. Mo., s.e. Kan., and in s. w. Wis. Petroleum is found mainly in w. Pa. and N. Y. Natural gas has recently come into very extensive use and is drawn from the earth mainly in w. Pa. and Ohio. Salt is obtained mainly from springs on the lower peninsula of Mich, and in w. N. Y. The salt mines of N. Y. are also large producers.

Agriculture is still the leading industry, although in many of the more densely settled e. States it has largely given place to manufactures. The value of farms, farming implements and machinery in 1890 was $13,773,500,116. The number of

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by the President, and the legislatures elected by the people. The States and Territories are divided into counties. In the s. and most of the w. States and in the Territories the county is the smallest subdivision which has political power. In New England the county has little political power, the primary unit of governmental organization being a subdivision of the county known as a town or city. In the n. States of the Mississippi valley and in N. Y., N. J. and Pa. the counties are divided into townships or towns, and the political power is divided between them and the counties.

The roots of the history of the U. S. are in the colonial settlements. Among the earliest were, St. Augustine, Fla., by Spaniards in 1565; Jamestown, Va., by English in 1607; New Amsterdam by the Dutch in 1613; Plymouth, Mass., by the Pilgrims in 1620; Mass. Bay, 1630. All the thirteen original colonies were in existence by 1681, New Amsterdam having been wrested from the Dutch 1664-74, and named New York in honor of James II.'s brother, the Duke of York, who became proprietor of the colony. The first attempt at confederation was made by some of the New England settlements 1643, for mutual defense against French, Dutch, and Indians. Representative governments had forced their way into all the colonies, whether charter, proprietary, or royal. As the colonies were regarded as mere instruments for the enrichment of England, collisions were almost sure to arise, and the colonial feeling of loyalty was much shaken by the renewal in 1761 of regulations of trade, which had become practically obsolete, and which worked hardship and injustice to the colonies, such as the Navigation Acts, Writs of Assistance, Stamp Act, Billeting Act, and finally the Port Act, by which the port of Boston was declared closed. "The news of these acts of Parliament crystallized every element of union in the colonies", a union which had already been made possible by the experience, mutual confidence and esteem gained through the French and Indian War. The schism once formed widened and deepened. The feeling of resistance made itself felt in the organization of a Colonial Congress, the first national body in American history, the main result of which was the approval of Mass.'s resistance to the execution of the offensive Parliamentary acts, and the promise of support in case those acts were executed by force. This was the prelude to war, which broke out 1775 at Lexington and Concord in resistance to Gen. Gage's attempt to seize colonial munitions. From this dates the real political existence of the nation. At the assembling of the 2d Colonial Congress, revolution was a fact, and Congress proceeded to raise and equip an army. The idea of independence, against which the colonies had hitherto protested, was embodied in the Declaration of Independence 1776. The war was carried on with varying fortunes, mainly in the north until 1779, and after that mainly in the south until the surrender of Cornwallis, Oct. 17, 1781, which won from England a treaty of peace and the recognition of independence. The era of struggle for a national government was introduced under the Articles of Confederation, adopted by the colonies during the progress of the war. A convention, called journed Sept., after having adopted the present Constitution to frame a new Constitution, met in Phila. May 1787 and ad

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farms in that year was 4,564,641, and their average size 137 acres, showing a continuous decrease in size. The area of improved land was 357,616,755 acres. The estimated value of agricultural products in 1889 was $2,460,107,454. Of these the principal product is wheat, which is raised mainly in the n. States of the Mississippi Valley. Cotton is raised almost exclusively in the s. States. The production of Indian corn is widespread. Tobacco is cultivated mainly in the States in middle latitude. Manufactures are very extensive and varied. They form the principal industry in the n.e. States, while in the s. and w. they are mainly confined to the larger cities. The fisheries are extensive, the product being valued in 1890 at $45,312,818. The railroad mileage in 1897 was 178,549.33, being greater than that of all Europe.

The population in 1890 was 62,831,900, of which 9.249,547 were of foreign birth, including 107,475 Chinese and 7,638,360 of the colored race. The average density of population was 20.7 to a sq. m., ranging from 276.4 in R. I., the most densely settled State, to absolutely uninhabited regions. The urban population is rapidly increasing, and in 1890 comprised 18,284,385, or more than 29 per cent of the entire number. Foreign immigration has been great since 1847. It was in 1897 230,832, mainly Irish and German. The total immigration from 1820 to 1897 inclusive was 17,775,524, not including that from Mexico and British America since 1885.

Each State has a public school system, upon which there was expended in 1894-95, in the entire country, the sum of $178,215.556. The government is a republic, the executive consisting of a President, Vice-president and Cabinet, the members of which form the heads of executive departments; namely, State, Treasury, War, Atty.-gen., Postmaster-gen., Navy, Interior, and Agriculture. The legislative department is represented by a Congress, consisting of two houses: Senate, 90 members, two from each State; and House of Representatives, 357 members, one for 173,901 inhabitants, and 3 delegates, one from each Territory, except Alaska and Indian Territory.

The receipts of the government are derived mainly from customs duties, and internal revenue levied upon tobacco and spirits. The total receipts in 1897 were $347,721,905, and expenditures for all purposes, including interest and payments on the principal of the public debt, were $365,774,159. Nov. 1, 1897, the net debt was $1.808,777,643.40. The number of post offices was. June 30, 1897, 70.022. The regular army comprised in 1897 2,179 officers and 25.353 men. The militia comprised 113.460 officers and men. The navy comprised 90 vessels, including 19 ironclads, with 726 officers, 8,250 men, and 2.177 marines. The naval militia comprised 3.871 officers and men. There are 45 States, 5 Territories (including Alaska and Indian Territory), and one federal district. The governments of the States are in all essential respects similar to that of the U. S. The executive officers of the Territories are appointed

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and provided for its execution after its ratification by nine of the colonies. N. H. was the ninth to ratify, whereupon Congress at once named the days for the choice of electors, the vote for President and Vice-President, and for their inauguration. The unanimous choice fell on Washington for President; John Adams, having received the next highest number of votes, was elected Vice-President.

The two terms of Washington and the one of Adams following were chiefly taken up with the organization of the new government and the development of internal affairs. Jefferson's two terms included the acquisition of the Louisiana ter

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ritory, more than doubling the area of the U. S.: Madison had to deal with the first serious foreign complication since the Revolution, the WAR OF 1812 (q.v.), which was concluded by the Peace of Ghent 1815.

The most important subsequent events before the Civil War were connected with the annexation of Texas. This was favored by the South, for the reason that it would thereby gain the balance of power. Mexico declared that the annexation of Texas would be occasion of war, and, as soon as Texas was recognized as a State 1845, began hostilities on the U. S. side of the Rio Grande. The war was concluded 1847 by the entrance of the Americans into the city of Mexico. By the treaty of peace the U. S. gained possession of New Mexico and upper California.

By far the most serious internal difficulties of the Republic were caused by the fact of slavery and by the theory, which was in part the outgrowth of this fact, that the government was a league of States which might be dissolved at will by any of the States within the league. This interpretation of the Constitution, of which Calhoun was chief representative, easily lent itself to the slave interest, and the menace of schism and secession was a constant element in the history of the quarter century preceding the outbreak of the Civil War, which came at last in the secession of the Southern States immediately after the election of Lincoln by the newly formed Republican party. War was practically begun by the bombardment of Fort Sumter April 14, 1861; the first blood was shed in the streets of Baltimore April 19, when a mob attempted to stop Mass. troops on their way to Washington.

At the beginning of the war the extermination of sla very was not in the purpose of the North, and Pres. Lincoln had

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expressly declared his intention not to suppress it in the States where it existed. But the issue was vaster than men dreamed; pent-up forces found a way for themselves; it was actually the "irrepressible conflict," and the war which began with the purpose of suppressing rebellion ended with the emancipation of the slaves. The war was concluded by the surrender of Gen. Lee's army at Appomattox, April 9, 1865, which was almost immediately followed by the assassination of Pres. Lincoln, April 15.

The period since the war has been a period of reconstruction and recuperation. The seceding States were admitted again to the Union on condition of their acceptance of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, which provided for the suffrage of the emancipated slaves and the recognition of the war debts of the loyal States. It was not until 1871 that all the States were again readmitted and represented in Congress.

The social reconstruction necessarily walks at a slower pace than the political reconstruction. The customs and prejudices of a hundred years are not to be overcome by an act of Congress or a resolution of the will. The new social status will establish itself with the lapse of time. The new era of the U. S. is industrial and economic. The recent national elections have been influenced chiefly by questions of legislative and tariff reform and of finance; the interests of labor are rapidly coming to be the controlling factors both in theoretical and practical politics. In this new era into which the U. S. are entering they "must meet and solve a new problem-the reconciliation of democracy with the modern conditions of production." See CONGRESS (CONTINENTAL), EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, U. S. NAVY, and ORGANIZATION OF U. S. ARMY; also the executive departments under their respective titles.

United States Bank, See BANK.

U. S. Military Academy. At West Point, N. Y.; founded 1802. Each Congressional district. Territory, and the District of Columbia, is entitled to one cadet: the whole number authorized is 370; the Pres. appoints 10 cadets at large. There were in 1896 8 professors, 55 commissioned officers, a chaplain, a sword-master, a teacher of music, and 332 cadets. The library contained 39,141 vols. Besides mathematical, scientific,

and military courses, instruction is given in English, French and Spanish, history and ethics, international law, and U. S. Constitution. Discipline is more strict here than in the army. Cadets are required to take an oath of allegiance and to bind themselves to serve the U. S. for 8 years from admission. The reservation contains ab. 2.300 acres, the jurisdiction of which has been ceded by New York to the U. S. government. During the Revolutionary War, West Point was one of the most important posts for the defense of the Hudson, owing to the narrowness of the river and the bold character of the heights of the plateau of West Point and of Constitution Island opposite. Washington occupied Moore's house, the owner of the grant, in 1779 from July 25 to Nov. 28 as his headquarters.

U. S. Naval Academy. At Annapolis Md.; was founded 1845 by G. Bancroft, Sec. Navy. During 1861-65 instruction was given at Newport, R. I. One cadet is allowed for each member of the House, one for the District of Columbia, and ten for the country at large: the latter are appointed by the Pres. A four years' course of study is supplemented by two years' service at sea, after which come the final examinations. The instructors are mainly naval officers. See NAVAL ACADEMY.

U. S. Navy. This dates from Oct. 13. 1775, when two cruisers, of 10 and 14 guns respectively, were authorized by Congress. By the end of the year 15 more vessels, of 20 to 30 guns, were added. The present department was established in 1798. In 1897 this comprised, with vessels under construction, 11 battleships, 2 armored cruisers, 13 protected cruisers, 6 double-turret monitors, 13 single-turret monitors, 1 ram, 3 cruisers, 9 gunboats, 6 composite gunboats, 22 torpedo boats, 1 dynamite cruiser, 1 submarine torpedo boat, 1 dispatch boat, 1 training ship, 6 old iron vessels, 10 old wooden vessels, 6 sailing vessels and 12 tugs. There are 726 officers. 8.250 men and 2,177 marines enrolled in the navy. See NAVY DEPART

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MENT.

U. S. Treasury. See TREASURY, U. S.

United Synod of the Presbyterian Church. Name taken by the Southern members in 1858 on the withdrawal of the New School Presbyterians in the U.S.

United Syrians. Syrian Catholics, who comprise the Syrian rite in the Eastern rite of the R. C. Ch.

Unities, DRAMATIC. Of action, time, and place; insisted on by some on the alleged authority of Aristotle; long observed, especially in France, but now, except the first, less regarded.

Units. A unit of measurement is a concrete quantity of the same kind as the quantity to be measured, arbitrarily chosen, in terms of which the result of the measurement may be expressed. There are as many kinds of units as of physical quantities to be measured. The full expression of the result of a measurement consists of two parts, a symbol denoting the concrete unit employed, and a number showing how many times the unit is contained in the quantity measured. For example, if a quantity is expressed by q [Q]. q is the number of times that [Q] the unit is contained in the quantity. The selection of [Q] is entirely arbitrary, but for the more ready comparison of results it has been agreed among scientific men to use the same units, and where these have been fixed by law they are called standards. The British yard and the meter are examples. If a certain number of fundamental units be arbitrarily chosen as a basis, and all other units be derived from these, the system thus formed is called an absolute system of units. If three fundamental units be chosen, viz., those of length, mass, and time, most of the others necessary for physi cal measurements can be derived from these. The fundamental units adopted 1861 by the British Association, viz., the centimeter, gramme, and second, form the basis of the most important absolute system; from the initial letters of the units, this is known as the C.G.S. system. The system based upon the foot, pound, and second is called the F.P.S. system, and this the British government uses in magnetic surveying.

The U. S. standards are the yard, equal to the English imperial yard; the troy pound of 5,760 grs.. from which the avoirdupois pound of 7,000 grs. is derived; the gallon of 231 cu. in. capacity. In France the unit of length is the meter; of volume, the litre, 1.000 cu. cm.; of mass the kilogramme, 1.000 gm. The meter is equal to 39.37 in. The unit of time is the solar second.

In the centimeter-gramme-second system the unit of area is the square centimeter; of volume, cubic centimeter; of velocity. a body moving through 1 cm. in 1 sec.; of acceleration, that which produces in 1 sec. an increase of 1 cm. a sec.; of force. the dyne, which acting on 1 gm. produces a velocity of 1 cm. per sec.; of work and energy, the erg, the work and energy of 1 dyne through 1 cm.; of power, that of 1 erg per sec.

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