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TURNER-TURPENTINE

Turner, EDWARD, 1778-1860. Judge Miss. Supreme Court 1824 and 1840-43; Chief-justice 1829-32; Chancellor 1834-39. Statutes of Miss., 1815.

Turner, JAMES, 1766-1824. Gov. of N. C. 1802-5; U. S. Senator 1805-16.

Turner, JOHN WESLEY, U.S.A., b.1833. Brig.-gen. U. S. Vols. 1863-66, serving chiefly in Va.

Turner, JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM, 1775-1851. Next to Constable, greatest English painter of his day; a man of great force of character and wonderfully true instincts in art; as a colorist not beyond criticism, but an artist of such power that no work of his can be overlooked or contemned. His later works may be considered rather as problems than as pictures. He amassed great wealth and devoted much of it to the repurchase of his own works, and bequeathed them to the nation, on condition that two of his landscapes should be hung beside two Claudes. The National Gallery has more than 100 of his paintings. A fine example is in the Metropolitan Museum, and two are in the Lenox Library, New York. The Slave Ship, now in the Boston Museum, is hardly one of his greatest pictures, though much praised by Ruskin, who once owned it. It was Ruskin's great merit to raise T. to due appreciation by his Modern Painters. The famous painter was also a clever etcher

Dover, by Turner.

in his way. He made no attempt to reach the degree of finish then common, but laid in his lines roughly and with force, trusting to the beauty of tone obtained by mezzotinting his plates: thus his etching, with all its masterly power, was little else than rough artistic notes of exceeding excellence.

sacus and Hesperia, is highly prized by the collectors, as is Devil's Bridge at Altdorf. His Liber Studiorum is well known. Turner, NAT, 1800-1831. Va. slave, who organized an insurrection 1831: 55 whites were killed and 17 negroes hanged.

Turner, SAMUEL HULBEART, D.D., 1790-1861. Prof. Gen. Theol. Sem. (P. E.), New York, from 1818, and Columbia Coll. from 1831; commentator. Prophecy, 1852; Autobiography, 1863. Turner, SHARON, 1768-1847. English historian. AngloSaxons, 4 vols., 1799-1805; Hist. England, 1066-1603, 1814-23; Sacred Hist. World, 1832.

Turner, THOMAS, U.S.N., 1808-1883. Commodore 1862; prominent in attacks on Charleston 1863; Rear-admiral 1868.

Turner, WILLIAM, ab.1510-1568. Dean of Wells, Eng., 1550-53 and from 1560; controversial writer and pioneer botanist. New Herball, 1551-62.

Turner, SIR WILLIAM, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., b.1832. Prof. Edinburgh since 1867; writer on anatomy.

Turner, WILLIAM WADDEN, 1810-1859. Prof. Union Theol. Sem., New York, 1842-52; Orientalist and translator.

Turneraceæ. Natural order of flowering plants, of the class Angiosperma, subclass Dicotyledons, and series Polypetala, comprising 6 genera and ab. 85 species, mostly found in America, from N. C. and Mexico to the Argentine Republic.

Turnicimorphæ. Order of Birds, including paleotropical forms having ægithognathous skulls, straight bill, the upper mandible overhanging the lower at its tip, and the nostrils covered by a linear scale. Turnix, in which the hinder toe is absent, is an example.

Turning. Process by which a circular shape is given to wood, metal or other hard substance; also of engraving figures composed of curved lines upon a smooth surface. See LATHE, SHAPING MACHINE, and TURRET LATHE.

Turnip. Brassica campestris. Biennial, fleshy-rooted herb of the Mustard family, native of Europe; widely cultivated as a food plant in many forms. The common turnip is only occasionally grown in field culture. Many farmers sow turnip seed in their corn at the time of the last cultivation, often getting a fair crop. Turnips, though very watery, are relished by most

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kinds of stock, and make a desirable adjunct to the winter ration.

Turnip, INDIAN. Arisama triphyllum. Herb of the natural order Aracea, with a hard, dense, intensely acrid corm, native of e. N. America; also known as Jack-in-the-Pulpit.

Turnip, SWEDE. Important in England and Canada; scarcely raised in the U. S., their place being taken by the mangel and sugar beet. When grown, they are cultivated in the same way as the beet, except that they are not sown until June 15 or later.

Turnip Fly. Name given to several insects destructive to turnips. Anthomyia radicum, the proper turnip fly, is of the same genus as the cabbage fly and attacks the root of the turnip, as the cabbage fly does that of the cabbage. The larvæ lives in the root. See CABBAGE INSECTS.

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Turnspit. Dog allied to the DACHSHUND (q.v.), and formerly employed to turn the spit upon which meat was roasted.

Turnstone (ARENARIA). Plover, which has the habit of turning over stones to find the molluscan, crustacean, etc., food concealed beneath them. The bill is sharp-pointed, the chest deep black; the head, throat, tail and wing coverts are white; the rest of the plumage is dusky, varied with rufous.

Turntable. Railroad track ab. 100 ft. long, supported on girders and pivoted at the center; used to turn locomotives

and cars around. See ROUND-HOUSE.

Turpene. See TERPENES.

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is cut higher up, the cut being in the form of a V. This is termed hacking, and when it reaches an inconveniently high point the tree is felled and used for timber. The crude turpentine is distilled with water in copper stills having a capacity of from 10 to 60 barrels. The oil is distilled off and the rosin drawn off into barrels.

Turpentine, OIL OF. Bpt. 160° C.: prepared by submitting the exudation from the pine to distillation with water; the oil passes over, rosin remains behind.

Its chief constituent is the terpene, pinene, which is a hydrocarbon of the symbol C10H,.. It is used as a solvent. See TERPENES.

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Turpeth, or TURBITH. Root of Ipomoea turpethum, found in India and Australia. It contains turpethine, C3H56O10) which possesses purgative properties. The root is used as a cathartic.

Turpeth Mineral, or TURBITH MINERAL. Ancient name for the basic sulphate of mercuric oxide, Hg,SO..

Turpie, DAVID, b.1829. U. S. Senator from Ind. 1863 and since 1887.

Turpilius, SEXTUS, d. 103 B.C. Author of Latin comedies. Fragments remain.

Turpin, or TILPINUS, d.800. Abp. of Rheims. His name is attached to a Hist. Karoli Magni, probably of later date, though approved by a Pope 1122. It was pub, 1566 and later.

Turpin, EDMUND HART, b. 1835. London organist, composer of cantatas, masses, and other music, mostly sacred.

Turpin, LOUIS GEORGES FRANÇOIS, 1790-1848. French Commodore 1837, Admiral 1843.

Turpin, PIERRE JEAN FRANÇOIS, 1775-1840. French botanist. L'inflorescence des Graminées et des Cypérées, 1819; Iconographie élémentaire et philosophique des végéteaux, 1820; Iconographie végétale, 1841.

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Turpin, RICHARD, 1705-1739. English highwayman, hero Dove, Zenaidura macroura. It differs from the American of many legends; hanged at York for murder.

Turquoise. Al,P,O+5aq. Natural hydrous aluminium phosphate, a little softer than quartz, and with a blue, bluishgreen, or green color, due to the presence of copper; not found in crystals, nor in large masses. The Persian turquoise is highly prized as a gem; the mineral from New Mexico, Arizona and Nevada has been similarly used to some extent. Occidental turquoise, bone turquoise, or ODONTOLITE (q.v.), is similar in appearance to the true turquoise, but is of organic origin.

Turretin, FRANÇOIS, 1623-1687. Prof. Geneva 1653; Calvinistic theologian of the strictest type. Institutio Theologiæ, 1679-85.-His son, JEAN ALPHONSE, 1674-1737, prof. at Geneva from 1697, held milder views, and strove for union with the Lutherans. Fundamental Articles, tr. 1720; Cogitationes, 1737. Works, 5 vols., 1775.

Turret Lathe. Machine tool much used in manufacturing, to produce numbers of the same article, particularly pins, screws, or studs. The head stock is like an ordinary lathe, with hollow spindle and centering chuck. A rod, of convenient size and section for the pieces to be made, passes through the spindle, is held by the chuck, and revolves with it. The tail stock carries a cylinder in which standardized tools are mounted like guns in a monitor turret: these tools can be presented successively to the work, and are fed by a lever up to stops which gauge length of cut. These tools may be six or more, and may size, turn thread, bore, point, and set for cutting off, without loss of time for measurements or calling for great ability of operator.

Turrets. Small towers used in Gothic architecture for ornament or at the angles as buttresses; they may carry a bell or include a staircase. In the Norman style they are square, in Early English they are polygonal and terminate in spires, and in Perpendicular style they have battlements and pinnacles. Also revolving towers of iron, containing large guns, for defensive purposes on land or water, invented by J. R. Tirnley 1841. New York Bay is protected in this manner. See TURRET SHIP.

Turret Ship. Species of iron-clad war vessel, on which the guns are carried in one or more iron turrets, which are capable of revolution, so as to bring the embrasure opposite the gun, which is pointed in any direction and temporarily unmasked while firing. Sometimes the turret projects through the deck of an iron-plated war vessel. The monitor has one or two turrets and one or two guns in each turret. It is nearly submerged and the deck overhangs, protecting the rudder and propeller. A monitor was built by J. Ericsson in 1862; plans for such vessels were submitted by him to Napoleon III. 1854, but were rejected. See MONITOR.

Wild Pigeon in having a bare tarsus, 2 more (14) feathers in the tail, and the plumage brownish olive, glossed with blue and wine-color, with metallic luster. It is 5 in. shorter (12 in.) than the Wild Pigeon. The tail is over 6 in.

Turtle-Head. See BALMONY.

Turtles. See CHELONIA.

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TUSCARORAS-TYLARI

trict along the s. coast. The cultivation of the vine is rapidly extending, but the wine produced is generally of inferior qual ity, except the Chianti and Montepulciano, which have a high reputation. It is the ancient Etruria. Area 9,300 sq. m.; pop., 1890, 2,274,191.

Tuscaroras. Tribe of s. Iroquois of N. C. They massacred whites 1711: the English, aided by Cherokees, took many of them prisoners, who were sold as slaves. The others rejoined the n. Iroquois, and thus the Five Nations became Six.

Tusculum. Latin city, 15 m. s. of Rome; noted for villas of Cicero (some of whose works were written there) and other eminent men; ruined 1191. Frascati is near its site.

Tushita. Fourth of six Buddhist heavens.

Tuskegee Institute. For colored youth; established 1881 by Booker T. Washington at Tuskegee, Macon co., Ala.; modeled after the school at Hampton, Va. In 1897 it had 79 instructors, 867 students from 19 States, 37 buildings, and 2,460 acres of land, of which 650 were cultivated by the pupils. The property is valued at $300.000. 25 industries are prosecuted by the students, and all but 3 of the buildings were constructed by them, even to the making of the brick and the sawing of the timber. It has done much good, and sent forth missionary teachers to many parts of the South.

Swiss-French

Tussaud, MARIE (GROSHOLTZ), 1760-1850. modeler in wax, from 1802 in London, where she established an exhibition of wax figures. It maintains its celebrity, and has been imitated elsewhere.

Tusser, THOMAS, ab.1525-1580. English versifier, whose Good Husbandrie, 1557-73, has some historical value.

Tussock. Dense tuft; frequent form of growth of swamp species of grasses and sedges.

Tuthill, LOUISA CORNELIA (HUGGINS), 1798-1879. American writer, chiefly for the young, as was also her daughter, CORNELIA (PIERSON), 1820-1870.

Tutmes. Same as THOTнMES (q.v.).

Tuttle, CHARLES WESLEY, 1829-1881. American astronomer and antiquarian.-His brother, HORACE PARNELL, b. 1839, discovered several comets and asteroids. Pay Tables of U. S. Navy, 1872.

Tuttle, DANIEL SYLVESTER, D.D., b.1837. P.E. Bp. of Montana 1867, and of Mo. 1886.

Tuttle, HERBERT, 1846-1894. Prof. Cornell from 1881. German Political Leaders, 1876; Hist. Prussia. 4 vols., 188396. Gneist highly esteemed vols. 2, 3, 1884, on Frederick II. Tuttle, JAMES MADISON, b.1823. Brig.-gen. U. S. Vols.

1862-64.

Tuttle, JOSEPH FARRAND, D.D., b. 1818. Pres. Wabash Coll., Ind., 1863-92; religious and historical writer.

Tutuila. One of the Samoan islands. The harbor PagoPago nearly divides it into two peninsulas. Length 11 m., area 15 sq. m.

Tutwork. In Cornish Mining, work in barren ground, dead work, or work paid for at a price independent of the value of the material excavated.

Tver. Russian town, on the Volga, 100 m. n.w. of Moscow. Pop., 1890, 40,962.

Twachtman, JOHN HENRY, b. 1853 in Cincinnati. scape painter.

Twain, MARK. See CLEMENS.

Land

Twayblade. Orchids of the genera Listera and Leptorchis; low woodland herbs of the n. hemisphere, bearing two leaves.

Tweed. River of s.e. Scotland, flowing 97 m. e. and n.e. to the North Sea at Berwick; drainage area 1,870 sq. m. Its last 18 m. form the English boundary. It is a noted trout and salmon stream.

Tweed, WILLIAM MARCY, 1823-1878. Politician of New York City: M.C. 1853-55; State Senator 1867-71; Commissioner of Public Works 1870; grand sachem of Tammany Society from 1863; leading spirit of a group of politicians known as the "Tweed Ring," who got control of the finances of the city, and plundered it of many millions. The ring was overthrown in the election of Nov. 1871. T., 1872-73, was arrested, tried, and sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment, on criminal suit, but was discharged by decision of Court of Appeals 1875. He was immediately arrested in a civil suit, and committed to prison for lack of bail, but escaped to Cuba, thence to Spain,

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whence he was returned 1876. His case was tried and heavy damages obtained against him, which were not paid, and he was confined in Ludlow Street jail until his death. Twelfth Cake. See TWELFTH NIGHT.

Twelfth Night. Jan. 5. Close of the Christmas holidays, which lasted 12 days; formerly celebrated in England by choosing a king and queen who presided over the festivities until midnight. According to ancient custom, a bean and pea were baked in a cake, which was cut and distributed to the company. The one who received the bean was made king; the receiver of the pea became queen. This and other customs peculiar to the day have mostly fallen into disuse. See EPIPHANY.

Twelve Tables. Earliest code of Roman law, cut on bronze plates and set up in the Forum; the first ten tables were enacted 451 B.C., after study of Greek institutions by a commission. The 11th and 12th, the work of the unpopular second triumvirate, set up 450, are called by Cicero "the two tables of unjust laws." Roman boys in early times learned these laws by heart. The existing fragments of these laws have been several times edited.

Twenty-cent Piece. U. S. silver coin, issued only

1875-78.

Twesten, AUGUST DETLEV CHRISTIAN, 1789-1876. Prof. Kiel 1814, and Berlin from 1835, succeeding Schleiermacher, on whom he wrote. Logik, 1825; Dogmatik, 1826-37.

Twickenham. Town of Middlesex, on the Thames, 11 m. s. w. of London; residence of Bacon, Pope, and other notables. Pop., 1891, 16,026.

Twiggs, DAVID EMANUEL, U.S. A., 1790-1862. Captain 1815, Col. 1836, Brig.-gen. 1846; distinguished in the Mexican war; dismissed 1861 for surrendering his command and stores in Texas to Confederates; Major-gen. C.S. A. 1861.

Twilight. Caused by reflection of the sun's light from the atmosphere, or from particles of matter floating in the atmosphere. It continues until the sun is about 18° below the horizon.

Twill. Variety of textile goods, in which the weaver gives a sort of diagonal ribbed appearance to the surface. All twilled fabrics present a twill on both surfaces, though reversed in direction. Satin bombazine and kerseymere are varieties of twill.

Twillingate, or TOULINGUET. Port of Newfoundland, on two islands of same name, off n. coast, in 54° 44′ W. long.: the finest Newfoundland dogs come from this district. Pop. 2,800.

Twin Flower. Linnæa borealis. Low, creeping evergreen shrub of the natural family Caprifoliacea, bearing pairs of white flowers, native of the cooler parts of the n. hemisphere.

Twining, THOMAS, 1734-1804. English tr. of Aristotle's Poetics, 1789. Recreations and Studies, 1883.

Twin-Leaf. Jeffersonia diphylla. Low, white-flowered herb of the natural order Berberideæ, native of the e. U. S.; known also as Rheumatism-root.

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Twiss, SIR TRAVERS, D.C.L.. F.R.S., b. 1809. Prof. Oxford 1842-47 and 1855-72; knighted 1867; framer of a constitution for Congo Free State 1884. International Law, 1856; Law of Nations, 1861-63; Monumenta Juridica, 4 vols., 1871-76. Twisted-Stalk. Herbs of the genus Streptopus, of the Lily family, bearing inconspicuous flowers, natives of n. temperate zone.

Twister, or TWIRLER. In w. U. S., tornado, or small revolving storm.

Two-cent Piece. U. S. bronze coin, issued 1864-73; first to bear the motto, "In God we Trust."

Two Old Cat. See ONE OLD CAT.

Tybee Island. In Georgia, at mouth of Savannah river. It is 6 m. long and 3 m. wide, and separated from the coast by Lazarreto Creek.

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Tyler, BENNETT, D.D., 1783-1858. Pres. Dartmouth Coll. 1822-28; pres. Theol. Institute, E. Windsor, Conn., from 1834. He maintained the older and stricter views against Dr. N. W. TAYLOR (q.v.) of Yale. Hist. New Haven Theology, 1837; Lectures, 1859.

Tyler, DANIEL, 1799-1882. Brig.-gen. U. S. Vols. 1862-64, serving in Miss., Va., and Md.

Tyler, JOHN, 1790-1862. Tenth pres. U. S.; M.C. 1816-21; Gov. of Va. 1825-27; U. S. Senator 1827-36; opponent both of U. S. Bank and of Pres. Jackson's measures against it; Whig candidate for Vice-Pres. 1836; elected 1840. He succeeded Pres. Harrison, April 1841, and had a rather stormy term,

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Bactrian Camel (Camelus bactrianus).

cated as the Alpaca, noted for its wool. They differ from the true camels in having no hump, and in having a separate pad for each toe. See CAMEL, LLAMA, etc.

Tylor, EDWARD BURNETT, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., b.1832. Keeper Oxford Univ. Museum 1883; pres. Anthropological Society 1891. Mexico, 1861; Early History of Mankind, 1865; Primitive Culture, 1871; Anthropology, 1881.

Tyloses. Delicate membranes of parenchymatous tissue, found within the vessels of woody plants.

Tylostyle. Spicule of the stylus type with the butt end
clubbed (tylote), found in the sponge genus Placospongia.
Tylote. Rhabdus knobbed at the ends.
Tympani. See DRUM.

Tympanic Bulla. Projecting capsule of tympanic bone in carnivores.

being at odds with most of the Whigs on the Bank question
and other matters. Webster alone of Harrison's advisers re-
mained in the Cabinet. From 1845 he was in private life till
1861, when he entered the Confederate Congress.-His son,
LYON GARDINER, LL.D., b.1853, pres. William and Mary Coll.
since 1888, pub. Letters and Times of the Tylers, 1884.
Tyler, MOSES COIT, LL.D., b. 1835. Prof. Univ. Mich.
1867-81, and Cornell since 1881. Brawnville Papers, 1868,
Hist. American Literature (Colonial), 1878; Patrick Henry, the sonorous body. See EAR.
1887; Literary Hist. Revolution, vol. 1, 1897.

Tyler, RANSOM HEBBARD, 1813-1881. Judge of Oswego co.,
N. Y. Law of Infancy, 1868; Usury, Pawns, and Loans, 1873;
Boundaries and Fences, 1874; Fixtures, 1877.

Tyler, ROBERT OGDEN, U.S.A., 1831-1874. Brig.-gen. U. S. Vols. 1862; artillery commander in Va.; disabled at Cold Harbor, June 1, 1864; Brevet major-gen. U.S.A.

Tyler, ROYALL, 1757-1826. Judge of Vt. Supreme Court 1794, Chief-justice 1800-6; author of three plays, produced 1786-97, a romance, The Algerine Captive, 1797, and other works. Reports Vt. Supreme Court, 1809-10.-His son, EDWARD ROYALL, 1800-1848, founded The New Englander.

Tyler, SAMUEL, LL.D., 1809-1878. Law prof. Columbian Coll., Washington, D.C., from 1867; biographer of R. B. Taney, 1872. Burns, 1848; Progress of Philosophy, 1858; Law of Partnership. 1877. His Baconian Philosophy, 1844, won praise from Sir Wm. Hamilton.

Tyler, WAT, d. 1381. Leader of a revolt of English peasants, celebrated in Shakespeare's Richard II.

Tyler, WILLIAM SEYMOUR, D.D., LL.D., 1810-1897. Prof. Amherst since 1836; editor of Tacitus, 1847-49, and other classics. Theology of Greek Poets, 1867; Hist. Amherst Coll., 1873. Tylopa, or TYLOPODA. This comprises the family Camelida of the suborder Selenodontia, and is characterized by somewhat aberrant peculiarities. There are but two toes to each foot, and the hoof is nail-like. There are no horns, and the upper lip is cleft. The adult has but two incisors in the upper jaw (the young and fossil forms have four or six). There are also canines, and the first premolar is separated by a diastema from the other grinders. The nostrils can be closed at will. The red blood corpuscles are oval. The Old World camels are domesticated, have the toes united by a callous sole, and form two species that are interfertile, the Bactrian Camel of Central Asia and the African or Arabian Dromedary. The former has two humps of fat, the latter only one. These are drawn

Tympanic Membrane, or DRUM OF THE EAR. Membrane stretched across the bottom of the external auditory meatus, separating the external from the middle ear. It is closely connected with one of the small bones of the middle ear, and, receiving the sound vibrations, transmits them to the chain of ossicles. It vibrates with the same rapidity as

Tympanum. In Classical Architecture, triangular space between the horizontal and sloping cornices of a pediment.In Mediæval Architecture, the space between the top of a square doorway and an arch about it; it is generally carved.

Tympanum. Wheel for lifting water, consisting of a horizontal shaft, to which spokes are attached, having buckets at their ends. As the wheel is turned, these buckets dip into water and are filled: later in the revolution they discharge the water at a higher level. Anciently used for drainage and irrigation. Another form consists of an open framed wheel, with curved radial partitions to scoop up the water and deliver it at a higher level.

Tyndale, HECTOR, 1821-1880. Major 28th Pa. 1861: Brig. gen. U. S. Vols. 1862-64, serving with distinction in Va. and Tenn.

Tyndale, WILLIAM, ab.1484-1536. English reformer and martyr; on the Continent from 1524; imprisoned May 1535; strangled and burned at Vilvorde, S. Brabant, Oct. 6, 1536. His translations of N. T., 1526, and of the Pentateuch and other books, 1530-37, have great merit, and are the foundation of ours. His last words were memorable: "Lord, open the King of England's eyes."

Tyndall, JOHN, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., 1820-1893. Prof. Royal Institution, London, 1853, and its head 1867-83; in the U. S. 1872; pres. British Association 1874; pre-eminent as a writer and lecturer on physics. Glaciers of the Alps. 1860; tion, 1865; Sound, 1867; Faraday, 1868; Natural Philosophy, Mountaineering. 1862; Heat as a Mode of Motion, 1863: Radia 1869; Light, 1870; Electrical Fhenomena, 1870; Diamagnetism, 1870; Imagination in Science, 1871; Fragments of Science. 187192; Radiant Heat, 1872: Forms of Water. 1872; Exercise in the Alps, 1873; Floating Matter of the Air, 1881.

Tyne. Branch on the main stem or beam of a deer's horn. Tyne. River of n. England, flowing 32 m. through a coal region to North Sea; navigable for 18 m.

TYNEMOUTH-TYPHON

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Type. In Biology, etc.. perfect individual, exhibiting all essential characteristics of its group.

Type. Prophetic symbol of spiritual truths to be disclosed or developed later, as the O. T. sacrifices of that of Christ. The search for types was carried to great lengths by Origen and other Fathers.

Type-Founding. Art of casting types used in printing. Until ab.1550 printers cast their own type, but from hereon it became a distinct business. A Frenchman named Garomond is the father of letter-founders. W. Caslon established a letter foundry in London 1718. In 1838 David Bruce invented the first successful type-casting machine, which has been improved by various inventors. See PRINTING, INVEN

TION OF.

Type Metal. See ANTIMONY, METALLURGY OF.

Type-Setting Machines. These are built on two principles and are used extensively in the U. S. and in Europe.

Type-Setting Machine.

One class of machines sets movable types, which are released by operating a key-board, containing the alphabet, and as

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sembles the letters in a long line, to be justified to any desired width. The second class of machines is the Linotype, which assembles the matrixes from which the entire line is cast automatically. Daily newspapers use the latter; for book composition printers prefer the former. A machine for setting type was first invented 1822 by W. Church of England. It is being constantly improved. For distributing the types, each letter has a distinctive nick or nicks on the shank, by means of which a machine distributes each into its proper compartment. 15,000 types have been set in an hour by a machine, one operator setting the line, while another does the spacing.

Type-Specimen. Individual used as a type in preparing the description of a species or group.

Typewriter. Mechanical writing-machine operated by hand and printing a combination of letters, or a single letter at a time. Henry Mill, of England, received the first patent in 1714. The first in the U. S. was invented in 1819 by W. A. Burt of Mich. That invented by Xavier Proyrin of France in 1833 embodied the principles of the modern successful_machine. The first practical one, from which the modern Rem

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ington was developed, was invented by C. L. Sholes, S. W. Soulé, and C. Glidden 1868 in Milwaukee, Wis., and, after extensive experimenting, it was put upon the market as the Remington in 1874; the fundamental principles alone surviving. Since then it has been greatly improved, and many others made, each claiming superiority in one respect or another. See SHOLES, C. L.

Typhaceæ. Natural family of flowering plants, of the class Angiosperma and subclass Monocotyledons, comprising two genera and ab. 16 species, growing in the waters and marshes of Europe, temperate and tropical Asia, Australia, and the temperate regions of N. America; called the Cat-tail family.

Typhlops. See OPOTERODONTA.

Typhlosole. Longitudinal fold of the dorsal wall of the intestine of the Earthworm and bivalved mollusks. Its use is to increase the digestive surface.

Typhoid Fever. Name given in 1829 by Louis, a distinguished French physician, to a form of low continued fever constantly accompanied with inflammation and ulceration of the lymph follicles of the intestines. It is an infectious disease caused by a bacillus of the intestines, which has been isolated, the bacillus of Eberth. It is a water borne disease, and the communication is usually through the water supply. It is the most common form of continued fever of temperate climes, and is most common in the autumn. It is a self-limited disease, lasting about six weeks, with a varying mortality rate in different epidemics. The great reduction in the general deathrate from typhoid fever, by the adoption of sanitary precautions, warrants the assertion that it is within our power to prevent every case of it. In 1895 there were 469 deaths from typhoid fever in Philadelphia; with a 10 per cent mortality this indicates a total of 4,690 cases. The deaths from this cause in the U. S. is estimated at 45,000 annually, indicating a total of 450,000 cases.

Typhon, or TYPHEUS. Monster of the archaic world, represented as a fire-breathing giant, or a destroying hurricane, and 100-headed. He tried to gain dominion over gods and men, but was subdued, and lies in Tartarus, beneath Mt. Etna.

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