a specialization to fit them for such a habit, which from a certain standpoint may be termed a degeneration, so they are degraded Vertebrates, but as much specialized in their way as any Vertebrate.

Tunicate. Provided with a thin, separable covering. Tunicated Bulb. One whose scales are broad and overlap one another, forming a compact body.

Tuning Fork. Steel rod bent in the form of a U and attached to a steel handle at its center. If the prongs be set in vibration, the sound emitted is of constant pitch, depending upon the length and size of the fork. The fork is often mounted on a resonance box to intensify the sound. Tunis. One of the Barbary States, of n. Africa, subject to

France. It lies between Algeria and Tripoli upon the Mediterranean coast. The n. part is mountainous; the s. is low, some of it being below sea level; through this depression it has been proposed to let the waters of the Mediterranean into part of the Sahara. The country was held in ancient times by Carthage and Rome, in the Middle Ages by Caliphs of Bagdad, and later was governed by its own Beys. It was invaded by Louis IX. of France 1270, and was tributary to Turkey 1575-1871. Since 1881 it has been subject to France. The Bey abdicated 1897 and retired to Nice. Pop. ab. 1,500,000. The capital, T., near the site of Carthage, has some fine buildings, especially mosques and the Bey's palace, varied manufactures, tapestries. leather, soap, cloth, and olive oil, and a considerable trade. Pop. ab. 135,000.

Street in Tunis.

Tunkers. See DUNKERS.

Tunnel. Horizontal passage under the surface of the earth, built for an aqueduct, canal, or railroad. The Romans constructed several in connection with their water supply. The cost is, roughly, ab. $500,000 per mile. The Arlberg tunnel in the Tyrolese Alps is 63 m. long; opened 1883. The subaqueous tunnel under the Severn for the Great Western Railway is 4 m. long. That under the Mersey is, including approaches, 4 m. long; opened 1886. The Simplon tunnel, the contract for which was made in Sept. 1893, is to be 12 m. long. That under the Hudson River, opposite Jersey City, was partly constructed 1880-86, 1,800 ft. being completed; work was resumed 1889, but again suspended. The north tunnel from the N. J. side is of brick, oval, 16 ft. by 18 ft. high inside, 2,000 ft. long, and beyond of cast-iron, 18 ft. 2 in. diameter, 2,000 ft., with ab. 1,600 ft. to build to reach the shaft; it is 5,680 ft. between the shafts, 5,400 ft. between bulkheads. The top of the tunnel is 14 ft. below the river bed. Lake Fucinus in Italy was drained by a tunnel begun by Claudius, 11 years in building, and ab. 3 m. long. Prince Torlonia reconstructed this 1854-76, extending it by 2.200 ft., and reclaiming ab.40,000 acres of fertile land. See ADIT, HOOSIC, HUDSON RIVER, MT. CENIS, ST. GOTHARD, and THAMES TUNNELS.

Tunny (ORYCNUS THYNNUS, HORSE MACKEREL). Acanthopterygian fish, which sometimes attains a weight of 1,000 lbs. or more. It lives in the N. Atlantic, and is especially abundant in the Mediterranean, where it is caught in special pounds, several hundred fishermen uniting to raise the net which forms the bottom of the inclosure. On American shores it is caught by harpooning.

Tunstall, CUTHBERT, D.D., 1474-1559. Bp. of London 1522, and of Durham 1530; deprived 1552 and 1559, restored 1553; a learned and moderate prelate, who bore no part in the persecutions under Mary.

Tuomey, MICHAEL, 1808-1857. State Geologist of S. C. 1844, and of Ala. 1848; prof. Univ. Ala. from 1847; author of the geological map of Ala., 1853.

Tupac Amaru, ab.1543-1572. Inca of Peru, executed by the Spaniards.

Tupac Amaru II. (José GABRIEL CONDORCANQUI), 1742

Tana (Tupaia tana).

They have long bushy tails, five-toed, plantigrade, nakedsoled feet, and are active both in trees and on the ground. Tupelo. See PEPPERIDGE.

Tupi-Guarani. Numerous Brazilian Indian tribes, related linguistically. The territory they occupied includes ab. half of S. America. The Caribs of the n. are also closely related. Many of the Amazon tribes are Tupi, with admixed blood of tribes belonging properly outside the Tupi-Guarani stock. Some of these are terrible river-pirates; all are skilled in making arrow-poisons, of which a form of strychnine is the base. Some of the n. Tupi are, or were, cannibals; some compress the heads of infants. Of the central tribes, some tattoo; some were head-hunters, and prepared the heads taken as did the Maori of New Zealand. The mission-work among the s. tribes has fallen into decay since the expulsion of the Jesuits. They had in 1732 over 30 parishes, including 141,000 souls, under parochial, semi-communistic rule. True Tupi-Guarani are of copper-red color, and in disposition silent, patient, torpid. Considerable agriculture is practiced.

Prime

Tupper, SIR CHARLES, M.D., D.C.L., b. 1821. Minister of Nova Scotia 1864-67: Canadian Minister of State 1870-73, 1878-84. and 1887-88: Commissioner in London and Baronet 1888.-His son, SIR CHARLES HIBBERT, b.1855, Canadian official, was knighted 1893.

Tupper, MARTIN FARQUHAR, D.C.L.. F.R.S., 1810-1889. English author. His Proverbial Philosophy, 1838-42. written in unrhymed verse, was immensely popular, but little esteemed by critics. A 3d part appeared 1867. My Life as an Author, 1886.

Turan. Anciently, those parts of the Sasanian monarchy which did not belong to Iran, on the north; now sometimes applied to Turkestan. In philology Turanian has been mainly opposed to Aryan, serving as a general term for that family of languages otherwise known as SCYTHIAN (q.v.) and UralAltaic, mostly n. and w. of China and Tibet. It includes Mongols, Samoyeds, Hungarians, Turks, Finns, Lapps, etc.; but of late is falling into discredit and disuse.

Turbellaria, or PLANARIDA. Free-living Platyhelminths, with flat ovate bodies, covered with cilia. They have a mouth, but no anus, hooks, or suckers. They are divided into the suborders RHABDOCELA and DENDROCELA (q.v.).

Turberville, GEORGE, ab.1530-1600. English poet and translator. Faulconrie, 1575; Venerie, 1576.

Turbine. Form of water motor, revolving at a high velocity, and utilizing the impact and reaction upon curved blades of water moving at high speed, due to fall. There are 3 classes: 1st, those receiving water parallel with the axis and discharging in same direction, called parallel-flow wheels; of these the Fontaine and Jonval are historic types, and the Collins is a modern form: 2d. the outward flow, in which the water moves radially outward through guide blades, of which Fourneyron's wheel is the older type, and the Boyden is a modern form: 3d, the inward and downward flow or center-vent wheels, of which the Swain. Leffel, Burnham, Geyelin and Risdon are types. These may be combined. The axis is usually vertical (universally in earlier forms), but recently they have been

point of the fall. The efficiency of turbines, according to recent tests, averages 70 to 86 per cent, according to differences in design and in performance at full or partial opening of gate. 87.8 is one of the highest authentic results. The first turbine was devised by Fourneyron in France 1838. They are now used more extensively than all other forms of hydraulic motors. The most powerful ever erected are those installed at Niagara Falls 1895, each wheel furnishing 5,000 horse-power under a head of 136 ft.; the entire plant is intended to include ten such wheels. The cut shows a small wheel and the manner in which it is supplied with water from a penstock. See CENTER FLOW WHEEL.

Turbine, STEAM. Charles A. Parsons of England invented a steam pressure turbine in 1882, which made 10,000 revolutions a minute, with the economic efficiency of a non-condensing steam-engine. The Westinghouse Co. in 1896 built a modification of this turbine, called the Westinghouse-Parsons, for the Nichols Chemical Co. of Brooklyn, N. Y. It is of 300 horse-power and makes 5,000 revolutions per minute. It is 12 ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and 4 to 6 ft. high. It consists of a drumlike shaft, of varying diameter, on which circular rows of inclined blades are mounted; this revolves within a cylinder, in which are circular rows of blades, inclined in the opposite direction to those on the revolving drum; the latter pass between the fixed blades; this secures the effect of expansion and impact of steam from section to section along the shaft. De Laval devised an impulse steam turbine in 1892, which made 30,000 revolutions a minute. The steam is delivered from nozzles upon the face of a wheel, with curved grooves radiating from the center. A 300 horse-power turbine of this form has been made for the Edison Electric Lighting Co. of New York. The wheels are 29.5 in. in diameter, and make 9,000 revolutions per minute. These two turbines are used for running dynamo-electric machines. Turbot. See HETEROSOMATA. Turdus. See DENTIROSTRES.

Turenne, HENRI DE LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, VICOMTE DE, 1611-1675. French general of high rank; educated under his uncle, Maurice of Nassau; Marshal 1644; distinguished against Imperialists, Condé, Spaniards, and Montecuculi; killed at Sasbach. Memoires, 1782.

1563

all brief, and bear varying titles in the translations, were the first to reveal the inner life of Russia to w. Europe: they present a singular mixture of satire and sympathy, and are marked by an exquisite style, profound knowledge of human nature, and a gentle but hopeless pessimism.-Of his relatives, ANDREI, 1784-1845, wrote Historia Russia Monumenta, 1841-48; NIKOLAI, 1790-1871, was long in exile, and pub. Russie et les Russes, 1847.

Turgite. H,Fe,O. Hydrous ferric oxide, containing 5.3 per cent of water; much resembling and often occurring together with limonite, and of value as an iron ore. One of its best known American localities is at Salisbury, Conn. The name is of Siberian origin.

Turgot, ANNE ROBERT JACQUES, 1727-1781. French financial reformer and physiocrat. As Intendant of Limoges, 176174, he made that province the most prosperous of France. He became Controller-gen. of France 1774, but aroused enmity by his efforts to rectify the inequalities of taxation and to limit privilege, and was dismissed 1776. Reflexions sur la Formation et la Distribution des Richesses, 1776; Works, 9 vols., 1808-11.

Turin. City of n.w. Italy, at the junction of the Dora Riparia with the Po; ancient Ligurian town, sacked by Hannibal; Roman colony under Julius and Augustus; capital of a Lombard duchy, of Savoy, of Sardinia, and 1861-65 of Italy; held by the French 1506-65, 1640, and 1800-14. It has manufactures of silk and lace, some fine churches, squares, and gardens, several learned societies, and a university, with some 210 instructors, 2,000 students, and a library of ab.225,000 vols. The growth has been chiefly since 1815. Pop., 1893, 335,900.

Turkestan, RUSSIAN. Region of w. central Asia, held by Russia since 1867. Area 257,134 sq. m.; pop., 1890, 2,670,035, of several races, chiefly Kirghiz and Sarts. The region e., Chinese Turkestan, is thinly peopled and largely desert.

Turkey (MELEAGRIS). American Phasianidae of three wild species; M. galopavo (americana), with chestnut-tipped tail and wing coverts, wild turkey of U. S.; M. mexicana, with buffy white instead of chestnut; and M. ocellata of Central America, a gorgeous bird, colored with metallic blue, red, yellow, white, black, etc. The n. turkey may have been exported to England by the Cabots; the Mexican variety was imported by the Spaniards after 1518, and by 1530 had been

thoroughly established as a domesticated variety. By breeding and crossing between the n. and s. forms, the two main breeds of black and variegated are supposed to have arisen.

Turkey, or OTTOMAN EMPIRE. In s. Europe and w. Asia, with dependencies in n. Africa. The surface of European T. is mountainous, the principal range being the Balkans, on the n. Its area is 67,820 sq. m., and pop. ab. 6,000,000. That of Asiatic T. is greatly diversified, comprising high mountains, treeless plains and plateaus, and fertile valleys. Its area is ab. 700,000 sq. m., and pop. ab. 20,000,000. Its culture and industries every where are extremely backward. The empire comprises in Europe the s. part of the Balkan peninsula ; in Asia, Asia Minor and s. to Suez and Arabia. The Turks belong to the Tataro-Finnic family of the Mongolian race; they originated in the Altai Mts. They subdued Asia Minor 12301350, gained possessions in Europe, and attacked Constantinople; were defeated by Tamerlane 1402. but recovered, and under Mohammed II. took Constantinople May 29, 1453; it became his capital. Further conquests followed in Europe and

Asia. Under Solyman I., the Magnificent, ruling 1519-66, the empire attained its culmination. He conquered Hungary, besieged Vienna 1529, and menaced w. Europe. Turkish fleets ruled the Mediterranean till the battle of Lepanto, 1571. Alternating victory and defeat followed, the latter predominating. Vienna was besieged again 1683, but relieved by the Poles. In 1770 Russia advanced her boundaries to the Balkans, assumed a protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, annexed the Crimea, and pushed over the Caucasus. This caused another war, in which England and Prussia, alarmed at the rapid expansion of Russia, interfered in behalf of T. From this time dates the singular situation of T. in Europe, her existence being supposed necessary to the equilibriumi of the Great Powers. Sympathy with the struggle of Greece for independence, however, led unintentionally to the annihilation of the Turkish fleet by the allies at Navarino 1827. The Czar Nicholas improved the opportunity to assail T., but was forced by the allies to withdraw. A formidable revolt broke out in Egypt under Mehemet Ali, who led his victorious army to Constantinople 1832, but Russia feared the preponderance of French influence and joined the allies against Mehemet, who was forced to give up his conquests. The aggressions of Russia caused the Crimean war 1854, when France and England again defended T. Moldavia and Wallachia united as Roumania 1857, and secured a Hohenzollern prince for ruler. Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted 1875. Russia fomented discord at Constantinople; the Sultan was murdered. Bulgaria, Servia and Montenegro revolted, and in 1877 Russia declared war. T. was without an ally, and although her troops fought with their traditional valor, Russia was victorious and pressed forward to Constantinople. Again the allied powers interfered, and concluded the Treaty of Berlin 1878. Bulgaria became independent, e. Roumelia an autonomous tributary; Austria received Bosnia and Herzegovina; Servia and Montenegro became independent; Russia kept Kars and much adjoining territory. The frightful and repeated Armenian massacres of 1895-96 aroused much indignation in Christendom, but disclosed the inability of the Powers to agree on any action. The war with Greece, 1897, temporarily rehabilitated T. The Turks are valiant warriors, frugal, and capable of enduring great fatigue; religious fanaticism inspired their conquests. They are deficient in administrative capacity, and in peace settle down to sensuous enjoyment. The Porte rules over some of the finest territory of the globe, rich in soil, in mineral deposits, and in valuable timber: it has numerous excellent harbors, but a paralysis is over all. The debt in 1895 was $821,000,000. The Turks are an agricultural people; the business of the empire is in the hands of Greeks, Armenians and Jews. The government is a theocratic absolutism centering in the Sultan. The Vizier is Prime Minister, under whom are the department ministers. The governors of provinces are directly appointed by the Sultan, and the inferior officers are dependent upon them. All officials unite in their persons judicial and executive functions. The administration is exceedingly corrupt. Tripoli was made a province of T. 1835. Polygamy is practiced, and it was long the custom to supply the harem of the Sultan with captured Christians.

Turkey Buzzard. American vulture, resembling the carrion crow, but browner, with rounder tail: in flight it soars

by the hour. Its head and neck are red and naked all round. The plumage is black; length 30 in. It is a voracious scaven

ger, and ranges from Orange co., N. Y., s. and w. throughout the U. S.; the carrion crow rarely comes as far north. Turkey-Red Oil. See ALIZARINE ASSISTANT. Turkey Stone. Fine grained, siliceous rock, from Asia Minor, used for sharpening tools.

Turkish. Large and important branch of the Scythian family of languages, but with a literature greatly influenced by Arabic and kindred influences.

Turkomans, or TURCOMANS. Turkish tribes occupying the desert-steppes e. and s.e. of the Caspian Sea, ab. 1,000,000 in all. They are Sunnite Mohammedans, and recognize no

Turkoman Customs-Pursuit of the Bride.

chief. They love fine horses and are wild and predatory, though breeders and agriculturists. Physically they are thin but muscular, and have bronzed faces with fierce deep-set eyes. Some semi-nomadic tribes of Asia Minor are also so called."

Turks. Generic name applied to several tribes and races of people in Asia and Europe, who speak dialects of the Turkish language and are in great part members of the Turkish division of the Ural-Altaic family. The principal tribes are the BASHKIRS, KIRGHIZ, MONGOLIANS, OSMANLI, TARTARS, USBEKS, and YAKUTS (q.v.).

Turks Islands. Two islands s.e. of the Bahamas; Grand Turk, area 7 sq. m., pop. 2,500, and Salt Cay, area 24 sq. m., pop. 700. Chief products are salt from evaporating sea-water, fish, and tortoises. They were annexed to Jamaica 1874.

Turlupinus. Known also as BRETHREN OF THE FREE SPIRIT (q.v.).

Turmeric. Curcuma longa. Herb of the Ginger family, native of India; widely cultivated for its tubers, which yield a yellow dye.

Turn Buckle. Double stirrup having a female screw in each end; used to connect the ends of two rods. The threads of the screws being cut in opposite directions, the rods are tightened by turning in one direction and loosened by turning in the other.

Turnbull, LAURENCE, M.D., b. 1821 in Scotland. Aural surgeon in Phila. Diseases of the Ear, 1881.-His son, CHARLES SMITH, M.D., b. 1847, is also a specialist in the same branch.

Turnbull, ROBERT. D.D., 1809-1877. Baptist pastor at Hartford, Conn., 1845-69. Olympia Morata, 1842; Theophany,

1851.

Turnbull, ROBERT JAMES, 1775-1833. Leader of S. C. nullifiers. His Crisis was in that interest.

Turnbull, WILLIAM, U.S. A., 1800-1857. Engineer: designer of the Potomac aqueduct 1832-43.-His son. CHARLES NESBIT, U.S.A., 1832-1874, was an engineer with the Va. armies 1861-65. Turnbull, WILLIAM BARCLAY, 1811-1863. Scottish anti

quary.

Turnbull, WILLIAM PATERSON, 1830-1871. Scottish-American ornithologist. Birds of e. Pa. and N. J., 1869.

Turnbull's Blue. See FERROUS FERRICYANIDE. Turnèbe, ADRIEN, 1512-1565. Prof. Paris 1547; Greek scholar, praised by Montaigne; editor of sundry classics. Opera, 1600.

Turner, CHARLES TENNYSON, 1808-1879. English poet, brother of Lord Tennyson. His name was changed 1835. Sonnets, 1864-80.

Turner, CHARLES YARDLEY, b.1850. American painter. N.A. 1886.

Turner, DANIEL. U.S.N., 1794-1850. Active on the lakes 1813-14; Captain 1835.

Turner, DAWSON, 1775-1858. English botanist. British Fuci, 1802; Muscologia Hibernica Spicilegium, 1804; Fuci, 1808-19.