TORNARIA-TORRUBIA

horizontal and ascending whirl and the formation of a entral cloud, extending from near the earth up to the main oud, where the storm has its origin. In those observed by ellamy on the upper Niger the central funnel-shaped cloud as absent.

Tornaria. See BALANOGLOSSUS.

Tornea. River of Finland, flowing s., into Gulf of Finnd, forming the greater part of the Finnish-Norwegian ontier. Length 230 m.

Toronto. Capital of Ontario, Canada; near the head of ke Ontario; settled, as York, 1794; twice burned by Amerims 1812; chartered 1834. It has an excellent harbor and conerable commerce. Its university, founded 1829, burned 1890, s ab. 22 instructors and 400 students, besides several affiliated Eleges of divinity and law. Pop., 1891, 181,220, chiefly of rent growth.

Torpedo. Apparatus containing explosives, which can set off under water by contact with a vessel, thus ex-ding a percussion cap, which detonates the dry cotton and s the wet cotton. Sometimes they are stationary, or they y be automobile, and propelled through the water by electric other motors attached to them. In 1585, at the siege of twerp, a bridge was destroyed by a floating mine. Subrine boats were used in the Revolution. In the Civil War pedoes were used by both sides. The Whitehead torpedo s developed by Robert Whitehead, and dates from 1864; it cigar-shaped steel tube, 18 in. diameter, charged with 250 of guncotton, with 12 per cent moisture, and a dry gunton detonator of 16 oz. ssed air 900 yds., at a speed of 30 knots. The Howell torIts propeller is driven by como has an internal fly-wheel, which is spun up to 10,000 olutions per minute before launching, which acts upon the peller. The torpedoes are launched from the tubes by comssed air or a small charge of gunpowder.

"orpedo, See RAYS.

orpedo Vessels. Torpedo supply vessels are intended ransport small torpedo boats, torpedoes and submarine es, and are provided with machinery for ordinary repairs. are ab. 350 ft. long, 60 ft. beam, 20 ft. draught, 6,000 tons surement, and a speed of 20 knots. They are armed with -fire guns and automobile torpedoes. Torpedo vessels used for defense of ports against torpedo boats, and are sea-going. They are ab. 250 ft. long, 30 ft. beam, 10 ft. ght, 1,000 tons measurement, and a speed of 20 knots. are armed with rapid-fire guns, 4 launching tubes, and . Whitehead torpedoes. Torpedo-boat destroyers are ab. t. long, 18 ft. beam, 6 ft. draught, and a speed of 30 knots. - are armed with 3 launching tubes for 18 in. Whitehead edoes, and rapid-fire guns. First and second-class torpedo

s are used for defense of ports. These are 100 tons and 50 measurement, and armed with 3 launching tubes for Whitehead torpedoes, and rapid-fire guns. First-class

40 ft. long, 15 ft. beam, 5 ft. draught, 100 tons measent, and a speed of 24 knots. Third-class torpedo boats carried on torpedo supply vessels or on battleships, from h they are removed when required. Those of the U. S. 58 ft. long, 9 ft. beam, 15 tons measurement, and a of 18 knots. They have one 1 in. rapid-fire gun and launching tube for 18 in. Whitehead torpedoes. ARINE BOATS.

See

▪rquatus, TITUS MANLIUS. Dictator 353 B.C., Consul Of the celebrated patrician family of ancient Rome. ad his son killed because he killed a Latin warrior in e combat, which was contrary to his orders; hence the ssion Manliana imperia.

rque. Gold ornaments, worn around the neck or arm

Torque.

in ancient times in Asia and Europe, found in Gt. Britain, Ireland and France. These ornaments seem to have formed an important part of the wealth of those times.

Torquemada, sh Dominican, active at the Councils of Basel and JUAN DE, 1388-1468. ■ce; Cardinal 1439, Bp. of Palestrina 1455; theological

rquemada, JUAN DE, ab.1550-ab.1625. Provincial of scans in Mexico 1614. Monarquia Indiana, 1615. rquemada, TOMAS DE, 1420-1498. Spanish Dominican, itor-gen. of Castile and Aragon 1483; infamous as a per

1537

secutor. He brought thousands to the stake, and promoted
the expulsion of the Jews 1492.
Torrelli, ACHILLE, b. 1844.

poet.

Torrens, LAKE.

Neapolitan dramatist and

Gulf: salt marsh or shallow lake, ab. 125 m. by 20, with no In S. Australia, 90 m. n. of Spencer outlet.

Torrens, ROBERT, 1780-1864. Irish officer, M.P., and writer on trade and finance.

Torrens, WILLIAM (MCCULLAGH), 1813-1894. M.P. 1848-52 and 1865-70; reformer; biographer of R. L. Shiel, 1855, and Sir J. Graham, 1863. Industrial History, 1846; Our Empire in Asia, 1872.

Torrens System OF LAND REGISTRY. by Robert R. Torrens (1814-1884) of Adelaide; adopted 1858 in Devised ab. 1850 S. Australia, and subsequently in most of the larger British colonies. It consists of a special form of official registry of the title to land, as distinct from the deed, on each occasion of transfer. The government examines, registers, certifies, and guarantees titles for a small fee.

Torres, CAMILLO, 1766–1816. Colombian jurist and patriot, supreme chief 1815-16; executed by the Spaniards.

Torres Strait. Between Australia and New Guinea; 80 m. wide.

Torres Vedras, LINES OF. Series of defensive works, 152 in all, in three lines from Lisbon ab.25 m. n., constructed by Wellington to resist the advance of the French. The allies fell back within these fortifications Oct. 1810: the invaders withdrew March 1811.

Torres y Ayala, LAUREANO, 1645-1722. Gov.-gen. of Cuba 1707-11 and 1713-16.

Torres y Rueda, MARCOS DE, 1591-1649. Bp. of Yucatan 1644; Gov. of Mexico 1648, author of a notable auto-da-fé 1649. Torre-Tagle, JOSÉ BERNARDO, MARQUIS DE, 1779-1825. Pres. of Peru 1823; deposed 1824.

Torrey, BRADFORD, b.1843. American ornithologist and magazinist.

Torrey, CHARLES TURNER, 1813-1846. Anti-slavery martyr, imprisoned in Baltimore from 1844. Home, 1846.

Torrey, JOHN, M.D., LL.D., 1796-1873. Prof. Princeton 1830-54, and Columbia 1860–73; very eminent botanist. Flora of Northern and Middle States, 1828; N. American Cyperaceæ, 1836; Flora of N. America, with Asa Gray (incomplete), 183843; Flora of New York, 1843.

Torrey, JOSEPH, D.D., 1797-1867. Prof. Univ. Vt. from 1827; pres. 1862-66; tr. Neander's Ch. History, 1854. Theory of Art, 1874.

Torrey, JOSEPH WILLIAM, 1828-1884. Journalist in Boston and Hong Kong; Vice-consul in Siam; founder of a trading company in Borneo 1864; Rajah of Amboy 1865-79; Sec. U. S. legation in Siam 1879-83.

Torricelli, EVANGELISTA. 1608-1647.
tician and physicist; prof. Florence 1642. He wrote on the
Italian mathema-
quadrature of the cycloid and conics. His works were col-
lected 1644.

liquid having a density p, and then inverted, so that its mouth
Torricellian Vacuum. If a vessel be filled with any
is below the surface of the liquid in another vessel, the differ-
ence of level in the two vessels will be
Р
pg'

in which P is the

pressure of the air at the time, and g the force of gravity.
nothing but the vapor of the liquid. Torricelli first produced
The space above the liquid in the closed vessel will contain
this vacuum 1643, using water in tubes 60 and 40 ft. long, at-
tached to the sails or arms of a windmill.

Torricelli's Law. Theorem first stated 1644. 1. The
speed with which a liquid issues from an orifice is the same
as that which would be produced in the mass by falling freely
from the same height. 2. This speed is directly proportional
particular liquid used, all liquids issue under the same head
to the square root of the head, or depth of the orifice below
the surface. 3. Since the speed of efflux is independent of the
with the same speed. See EFFUSION.

Torrigiano, PIETRO, 1470-1522. Italian sculptor, victim of the Spanish Inquisition.

Torrubia, José, ab.1695–1768.

trasralar

Spanish

38

TORSION-TORUS

Torsion. Twisting of a bar or shaft by an applied force eting at the end of a lever. The stresses developed in torsion

are mostly those of shearing. The strength of a shaft is proportional to the cube of its diameter.

Torsion Balance. See COULOMB'S TORSION BALANCE. Torstensson, LENNART, 1603-1651. Swedish commander of artillery in the battle of the Lech, April 5, 1632; Commanderin-chief in Germany 1641.

Tort. Unlawful invasion of a legal right not originating in contract; to be redressed by a common-law action. The same act may be a crime as well as a tort, as in the case of an assault and battery.

and children under 14 were exempt. Torture was employed
also in the punishment of criminals. The means used were
the rack, barbed hooks, cords to compress the arm, and
leaden balls attached to a thong. Crucifixion, mutilation, ex-
posure to wild beasts, and other cruel modes of death were
common, especially in the persecutions. Crucifixion was
abolished by Constantine 315; mutilation was limited to loss
of one hand by Justinian; slaves were scourged, adulterers
also. By the Theodosian code heretics were to be flogged with
In the Middle Ages.
lead before banishment; insult to a bishop or priest in church
was punished by torture and exile.
wherever legislation was based on the Roman law, torture was
It was most elaborately systematized and
adopted also.
minutely developed in Italy. As late as 1769 the Criminal
Code of Maria Theresa illustrated the various methods by 45

Tortugas, DRY. Group of keys, or low islets, 120 m. w.s.w. from the s. extremity of Florida, to which they belong. On one of them, during the Civil War, Fort Jefferson was established and used as a military prison.

Tortuosity. Distinctive property of a curve in virtue of which it is called tortuous, or a curve of double curvature. The various points of such a curve do not all lie in one plane; e.g., a helix.

Torture. Regarded by the Athenians as an important means of eliciting truth both from the accused and from wit

nesses, if slaves, and
apparently also from
foreigners; freemen
were by special law
exempt. This enforced
testimony seems to
have been preferred to
that of citizens when
freely given. In the
Roman republic it was
applied to witnesses
and suspected persons
(not freemen); but
slaves might not be
tortured to prove the
guilt of their master,
except in case of crimes
against the gods, and,
later, of adultery and
crimes against the
State. Under the em-
perors free persons,
sometimes
knights and senators,
were tortured to ex-
tract evidence in State
cases. Christians of all
ranks were subject to
torture while Diocle-
tian's edict was in
force, 303-311. A wife
could be tortured if ac-
ing her husband; a freeman if there were in-
pregnant women,

even

large plates of engravings. Torture was never legalized in
England, though practiced there from before 1188 to 1640; it
was generally inflicted by special order. The rack in the
Tower of London was introduced in the reign of Henry VI.,
and often employed in those of Henry VIII., Mary, and espe
cially Elizabeth. The PEINE FORTE ET DURE (q.v.) allowed by
the common law differed from it, however, only in name. This
was employed once for refusal to plead in a trial for witch-
craft in Salem 1692, and was used in England as late as 1726,
but was abolished in 1772. The Inquisition applied the prin-
ciples of the Roman law to the punishment of heretics, regard-
ing heresy as a sort of treason against God and the Church.
In 1252 Pope Innocent IV. issued a bull directing the secular
powers to torture persons suspected of heresy. From the
Spanish reorganization of the Inquisition in 1480, the Holy
Office made free use of fire, water, melted metals, mutilation,
the thumb-screw, the Spanish boot, and other ingenious de-
vices to compel confession. Torture was abolished in Scot-
land 1708, in Portugal 1776, in Sweden 1786, in France 1789, in
Germany ab. 1800. Various instruments of torture are shown
to-day in the town-house of Ratisbon, and in the Tower of
London. Few jurists have attempted to justify the use of

torture.

Toru Dutt. See DUTT.

Torula Cerevisiæ. Name first given to the yeast-plant.
See FERMENT.

Torus. End of the peduncle of a flower, on which all

circula

GAL (9

TORUS-TOUR

e floral parts are borne; called also the Receptacle or alamus.

Torus. In Classical Architecture, large molding, semi-cular in section, used in the bases of columns. The ASTRAL (q.v.) is much smaller.

Tory. See TORIES.

Tosariu. Japanese school of painting, which flourished 1200, least affected by Chinese influence. It deals mostly th historical and mythological subjects.

Toschi, PAOLO, 1788-1854. Italian engraver, who repro-
ced many works of the Old Masters, and of modern artists.
hong his finest works are: Descent from the Cross, Repose
Egypt, and Venus and Adonis.

Tosti, FRANCESCO PALO, b. 1846. Italian composer of songs,
England since 1880.

Total Abstinence. See ABSTINENCE.

Total Benefit OF A MONOPOLY. Net benefits accruing to ducers and consumers together from the sale of a monopod commodity; made up of the sum of the monopoly revenue the consumers' rent.

Cotal Cost. Sum of the prime cost of an article and of
supplementary cost; i.e., its share in the general expenses
he business.

"otal Differential OF A FUNCTION OF TWO OR MORE
RIABLES. That arising from the simultaneous change in
che variables; sum of the partial differentials.
"otal Reflection.
GLE.

See REFLECTION and CRITICAL

otal Refraction. When the plane of polarization of am of plane polarized light is perpendicular to its plane ncidence, and the angle of incidence is equal to the polarizangle, no light will be reflected from the surface of a transent medium, and we have a case of total refraction, in ch the incident angle and the refracting angle are comnents.

otem. Class of objects closely and peculiarly related to s, sexes, or individuals; often tattooed or printed on the on; e.g., a snake, crow, or tree. This is tabooed, may not illed or eaten, sometimes may not be touched or looked at. e tribes think themselves to be descended from their totem.

1539

Col. and

Totten, JOSEPH GILBERT, U.S.A.. 1788-1864. chief engineer 1838; Brig.-gen. 1863. His work was chiefly on harbors and ports.

Toucans (RHAMPHASTIDE). Scansorial birds of the American tropics (but not W. Indies), noted for their enormous but light bills, the walls of which average in.; the interior is spongy, filled with air, admitted from an antorbital chamber they can throw them over their backs when resting, where of the skull. The tongue is horny, slender, and brush-like; their considerable tails are hinged next the pelvis, so that the bills lie also during sleep. They are omnivorous, but prefer fruit, live in flocks in forests, and nest in hollow robin to a crow, and colored from green to black, varietrees. There are over 50 species, in size from that of a gated with red, yellow and white. The largest is 2 ft. long, with bill 8 in. long and 3 in. high. The group is related to Woodpeckers and Parrots.

Toucey, ISAAC, 1796-1869. M.C. 1835-39; Gov. of Conn. 1846-47; U. S. Atty. gen. 1848-49; U. S. Senator 1852-57; Sec. Navy 1857-61.

Touch, SENSATIONS OF. Changes of consciousness aroused by stimuli of contact or pressure upon the surface of the body. Touch is one of the skin senses, and must be distinguished from the TEMPERATURE (q.v.) sense. sense varies greatly in different regions of the body (see SENThe fineness of the tactile SATION AREAS). The end organs of touch or pressure are small modified nerve-endings, known as corpuscles of various kinds, situated in the skin and directly connected with the great sensory nerves.

Touch-me-not. See JEWEL-WEED.

Touch-Money. Gold coins, pierced; given by order of Charles II. to persons

touched by him, to

King's
As

MER

OR REC..

be healed of
Evil (scrofula).
92,107 persons came
1661-82, and each re-
ceived a gold coin, it
became necessary to
limit the patients to
those who obtained a
certificate from their
Touch-piece (time of Queen Anne).
parish minister. Specimens of the money are in many nu-
mismatic collections.

Touch Paper. Paper steeped in saltpeter and dried. It ignites slowly and burns in sparks. Sometimes burned in a room to relieve asthma paroxysms. See MATCH.

Touchstone. See BASANITE.

Touchwood. Fungus (Polyporus igniarius) growing on trees; that which grows on the oak is most esteemed: also, the wood of the ash or willow which has undergone dry rot. It is much improved by wetting with potassium nitrate or chloride; used for tinder. See AMADOU.

Tougaloo University. Founded 1869 in Madison co., Miss., by American Missionary Association; for colored persons. It has 8 departments, 23 teachers, and nearly 400 students.

Toulmin, JOSHUA, 1740-1815.
mingham from 1804; biographer of Socinus, 1777.
Unitarian pastor at Bir-
Evidences. 1785; Dissenters under William, 1814.-His son,
Internal
HENRY, 1767-1823, was pres. of Transylvania Univ. 1794-96,
Sec. of State of Ky. 1796-1804, and U. S. District Judge for
Miss. 1804. Acts of Ky., 1802; Laws of Ala., 1823.

Toulon. Fortified seaport and naval station of s. France,
on the Mediterranean; scene of English defeats 1707 and 1744.
In 1793 they held the town four months, and were expelled by
Bonaparte. Pop., 1891, 74,144.

Toulouse. Ancient city of s. France, on the Garonne: capital of the Visigoths 412, of dukes of Aquitaine 611-761, and of its counts ab.920-1271; long center of Provençal culture; harried in Albigensian crusade (see RAYMOND). Its university was founded 1229. Its cathedral dates from 1096, but is mostly of later erection. The town has other old buildings, and ex tended commerce and manufactures. Here the British under Wellington defeated a French army under Soult, April 10. 1814. Pop., 1891, 149,791.

Tour

TOURAINE-TOWER BRIDGE

It can be extemporized by using a handkerchief, in which a
knot has been tied to be placed over the artery, tied loosely
around the limb and twisted by a stick until sufficient com-
pression is produced: this is known as the Spanish Windlass.

Touro, JUDAH, 1775-1854. Jewish philanthropist of New
Orleans.

Tours. City of France, on the Loire, near the mouth of
the Cher. It has large manufactures, especially of silks.
though much less than before 1685. Near it Charles Martel
It was the ancient capital of the
defeated the Saracens 732.
Turones, long of Touraine, and the seat of French government
Sept.-Dec. 1870. Pop., 1891, 60,335.

Tours, BERTHOLD, b.1838. Dutch composer, in England
since 1861.

Tourville, ANNE HILARION DE COTENTIN. COMTE DE, 16421701. French admiral 1689; victorious over English and Dutch

necti stree

Tournaments in honor of the entry of Queen Isabel into Paris. strict rules; institution of the Middle Ages, which ended 1559 in France, with the death of Henry II. from an accident in the tilt. See JOUST.

Tournefort, JOSEPH PITTON DE, 1656-1708. Prof. Paris 1683. French botanist. Elemens de botanique, 1694; Histoire des plantes, 1698; Institutiones rei herbariæ, 1719; Traité de la matière médicale, 1717.

Tourneur, CYRIL, d.1626. English dramatist and poet.
Revenger's Tragedy, 1607; Atheist's Tragedy, 1611.
Instrument to control the circulation of the
to prevent loss of

TOWER HAMLETS-TRABECULE CRANII

necting their tops, while a lower roadway on the level of the street can be opened to allow the passage of vessels. Its length

1541

1725-1767, became M.P. 1747, Privy Councilor 1757, Sec. of War 1767-72, and was made Marquis 1787.-His brother, CHARLES, 1761, and Chancellor of the Exchequer 1766. He was noted as a wit and orator, had more ability than principle, and brought in the system of colonial taxation which led to the American Revolution.

Townshend, CHAUNCY HARE, 1798-1868. English poet and writer on mesmerism. Religious Opinions, 1869.

Township. Division of a county in some American States. See TOWN.

Town Truss. Bridge truss invented 1820 by Ithiel Town. having its chords and webbing made of planks fastened together with treenails. It was used for short spans until ab.1850. but

Tower Bridge.

940 ft., the span between towers 200 ft., and the height of he upper roadway above the water 135 ft. Access to the uper footway is furnished by elevators in the towers.

Tower Hamlets. Parliamentary borough in e. London,
omprising 7 divisions; namely, Whitechapel, St. George,
imehouse, Bow and Bromley, Poplar, Mile End, and Step-
ey. Originally they were outside the jurisdiction of London.
op. 451,900.

Tower-Mustard. Arabis glabra. Herb of the natural
mily Cruciferae, native of the n. temperate zone.
Tower of London. See LONDON, TOWER OF.
Towers of Silence. At Bombay, and elsewhere in India
nd Persia; used by the Parsees for the disposition of dead
dies; 20 to 30 ft. high and 60 to 90 ft. in diameter.
rial or burning of the body would corrupt the elements, it
As the
placed where vultures strip the flesh from the bones. See
ISPOSAL OF THE DEAD.

Towianski, ANDREAS, 1799-1878. Polish enthusiast, re-
red as a prophet and Messiah by Mickiewicz and others;
iven from Paris 1842, and later from Rome.

Towle, GEORGE MAKEPEACE, 1848-1893. American historal writer. Heroes of History, 6 vols., 1878-82. Towler, JOHN, M.D., b.1811 in England. 11. 1850-82; tr. German poems; writer on photography. Prof. Hobart Town. Territorial subdivision of the State. The term is ed in many senses. According to Coke, a place could not a town unless it had had a church. It sometimes desigtes a thickly settled locality, at others a political subdivision. the U. S., the meaning often depends upon statutory prosions. In New England it is a township, or division of a unty.

Town, SALEM, 1779-1864.

oks. Derivative Words, 1830.

American author of school

Town's Bridge.

is now rarely built.
strain and no lateral pressure is exerted against the piers or
The timbers or chords take up the thrust
abutments. The slat pieces are arranged parallel at an angle
of 45° to a horizontal line.

Towton. In Yorkshire; site of battle March 29, 1461, fatal to the Lancastrians, of whom more than 37,000 fell.

Toxæmia. Illness produced by poisoning the blood, either by the products of the body-cells that have not been thrown off from the system, or by the toxins due to the growth of mirco-organisms.

Toxicology. Science which investigates the nature of poisons, their effects upon animal life, the method of their detection either from the symptoms or by post mortem examination, and the treatment of the person poisoned.

Toxodon. S. American late Tertiary fossil, 5-toed, ungulate, and as large as a rhinoceros. elephant-like; the nasal openings were situated as in Sirenia: Its legs and feet were the incisors were rodent-like, the molars edentate-like, and other parts of the skeleton have rhinocerotic characters.

Toxodontia. Suborder of Taxeopoda, comprising certain large extinct Mammals of the Tertiary deposits of S. America. Some forms included here are by certain authors referred to the Hyracoidea. Others have affinities with Ungulates, some with Rodents, and others with Edentates. The teeth grow from persistent pulps: the grinders are flat-crowned and crescentic in cross-section, the convexity being outward. There is a wide diastema and small canines. See ToxODON. Toxoglossa. Group of ctenobranchiate Gastropods, havConus is an example.

Town Council. Governing body of a municipality. See ing siphon and a radula furnished with two rows of long hooks. UNICIPAL CORPORATIONS.

Townley, CHARLES, 1737-1805. English collector of Greek
d Roman statues, coins, etc., now in British Museum.
Townley, JAMES, 1774-1833.
ns of Biblical Literature, 1821.

English Wesleyan. Illustra

Towns, GEORGE WASHINGTON BONAPARTE, 1801-1854. M.C.
35-39 and 1845-47; Gov. of Ga. 1847-51.

Townsend, EDWARD DAVIS, U.S.A., b.1817. Col. 1861;
ef executive officer of War Dept. 1861-65.
Townsend, EDWARD W., b. 1855.
author. Chimmie Fadden, 1895; A Daughter of the Tene-
American journalist
nts, 1895.

American

Townsend, GEORGE ALFRED ("GATH"), b. 1841.
rnalist and novelist. Tales of the Chesapeake. 1880; Katy
Katoctin, 1886; Mrs. Reynolds and Hamilton, 1890.
Townsend, LUTHER TRACY, D.D., b.1836. Prof. Boston
iv. 1867-93. Sword and Garment, 1871; Credo, 1873; The-
gy, 1893.

Townshend, CHARLES, VISCOUNT, 1674-1738. Privy Coun-
or 1707-12; Envoy to Holland 1709-10. See of su

3 1801 00

Toy, CRAWFORD HOWELL, D.D., LL.D., b. 1836 in Va. Prof. of Hebrew at Greenville, S. C., and Louisville, Ky., 1869-79, and since 1880 at Harvard. Religion of Israel, 1882; Quotations in N.T., 1884; Jadaism and Christianity, 1890.

Toys. Children's playthings and articles of all sorts designed for amusement to children. France, Germany, and Switzerland are the chief producers. See DOLL.

Toynbee, ARNOLD, 1852-1883. Lay missionary in London. Industrial Revolution, 1884. T. Hall, founded 1885 in Whitechapel for the improvement of the poor, and carried on by Oxford and Cambridge men, is his memorial. It has been the model for sundry college settlements and the like in American cities.

Trabeculæ. In Vegetable Anatomy, ducts provided with
projections from their walls nearly or entirely across their
cavities.

Trabeculæ OF SPONGES. Cross beams of tissue and of
paragastric cavity of sponges.
spicule elements, uniting the radial tubes (or side buds) of the

They consi