SMOOTH-SNEEZEWEED tion covering 1689-1760 is appended to Hume's. His orks include Travels, 1766; a satire, Adventures of an 769; two plays, and a few fine poems. oth. A surface is so called when no resistance to modeveloped when it is moved in contact with another The coefficient of friction between any two surfaces -hich is smooth is always zero. oth Bore. Muzzle-loading gun whose bore is not rifled. Its caliber is always a trifle greater than that of the projectile to facilitate loading. It is rapidly becoming obsolete. Smooth bore projectiles are of necessity spherical in shape, and are made of lead for small arms and of cast iron for cannon. Smut on Maize. Smuggling. Illegal importation of dutiable articles without paying the import tax upon them; statutory offense in most countries. Smut. Fungi of the group Coniomycetes, parasitic on other plants, and in many cases exceedingly destructive. Smut. Earthy, dirty coal, such as is frequently seen near the outcrop of a seam. Smybert, or Smittish painter, in Boston from 1729. bert, JOHN, ab. 1684orical and artistic importance. His portraits a. Only one of the ancient cities of Asia Minor survived to the present. It claimed to be the birthHomer, and lay at the entrance of a great fertile Sardis behind it; rebuilt on a new site, at the head Smyrna from the Bay. of S., ab.327 B.C. Polycarp was martyred here vas taken by Tamerlane 1402, by Turks 1424. It seat of Levant trade. ved 2,000 lives. Pop. ab. 220,000, half Greeks. An earthquake, May 12, ALEXANDER, 1765-1830. U. S. Inspector-gen. 1812; a. 1817-25 and 1827-30. Regulations for Infantry, ANDREW WOODS, M.D., b.1833 in Ireland. Surgeon HARLES PIAZZI, LL.D., b.1819. Astronomer-royal OHN, ab.1552-1612. English separatist, at Amster- AMUEL PHILLIPS), NEWMAN, D.D., b.1843. Pastor Snake Indians. See SHOSHONES. Snake-Nut. Ophiocaryon paradoxum. Tree of the natural family Sabiaceae, native of Guiana. The large embryo is coiled in the seed, so as to resemble a snake. Snake Plains. Region in Idaho, Oregon and Washington, through which the Snake River flows; covered with basaltic lava. Area ab. 250,000 sq. m. Lost rivers flow beneath the lava. Snake Poison. See SOLENOGLYPHA. Snake River. Fork of the Columbia. It heads in Yellowstone National Park, pursues a tortuous and very rapid Shoshone and American Falls. At the w. boundary of Idaho course w. across Idaho, with several fine falls, among them it turns n. and then w. into Washington, to its junction with the Columbia. Length ab. 1,000 m., drainage area 103,835 sq. m. Snake River. That part of the Mackenzie in Canada which connects Lake Athabasca with Great Slave Lake. Snakeroot. Plants supposed to be cures for snake bites; ily Rubiaceae, native of India; Chiococca augustifolia, of the among them Ophiorhiza mungas, a shrub of the natural famsame family, from Brazil, and Casearia ulmifolia, of the natural family Samydacea, also from Brazil. Snakeroot, BLACK. In e. U. S., herbs of the genus Sanicula, natural family Umbelliferæ. Snakeroot, BUTTON. Eryngium maritimum. E. Ameri- Snakeroot, WHITE. Eupatorium ageratoides. Snakes. See OPHIDIA and COLUBRIFORMIA. Snakestone. Placed upon a snake bite, it is supposed by the superstitious that it will absorb the poison. When it is applied to the bite of a rabid dog it is called a Madstone. It usually is of a porous nature and may have strong absorbing power, and this, coupled with the unlimited faith of the person in the stone, may act as a powerful auxiliary to a cure. Snake-Wood. Strychnos colubrina. Small tree of the natural family Loganiaceae, native of the E. Indies, supposed to be a cure for snake-bites. Snapdragon. Linaria vulgaris. Showy-flowered spe cies of the genus Antirrhinum, natural family Scrophula- Snapdragons. Accompani- Snapdragon (Linaria vulgaris). Snapping Turtles. See CHELYDRIDE. SNEEZEWORT-SOCIAL CAPITAL ort. Achillea ptarmica. White-flowered herb osite family, native of Europe, introduced as a America. . The mechanism of sneezing consists in a deep wn inspiration filling the lungs, a closing of the indpipe (glottis) and the opening of the pharynx th, followed by a sudden, forcible expiration and opening of the glottis, causing the expired air to through the nose. Snellius, WILLIBRORD, 1591-1626. Prof. Leyden ious mathematician, who discovered the properties triangle in Spherical Trigonometry. Cyclometria, rt, FERDINAND AUGUSTIN, b.1809. Belgian essayist , JOSIAH, U.S.A., 1782-1829. Captain 1809, Coloctive in war of 1812; builder of Fort S., near St. ., 1824. n, NICHOLAS, 1769-1845. Introducer of camp-meetY. and Md.; leader in forming M. P. Ch. Lay Repa. 1835. , JACOB, d.1866. Phila. merchant, inventor of a ding rifle, adopted in England 1866. Limicoline, twilight birds, with soft, mottled plu mage; long, soft, flexible In casus 11,000, Rocky Mts. 12,500. Himalaya 19,500, Bolivian Snow Plow. Of the various forms in use, a revolving the Snipe family, of ab. Snoilsky, KARL JOmmon Snipe (Gallinago cœlestis). Swedish lyric poet and diploUSTAV, COUNT, b. 1841. . His earliest poems. Smaädikter, 1861, are charactery great warmth, especially in its descriptions of Italian d scenery. ore Hole. For admission of water in snore piece, at end of a set of mining pumps. The earlier forms of snow plows required oftentimes the com- oring. Noisy breathing during sleep caused by the vion of the soft palate during inspiration; this is only poswhen the mouth is open. Icelandic historian and orre, STURLASON, 1178-1241. author of the Heimskringla, a chronicle of Norwegian s to 1177, and (of part, at least) of the Younger Edda. now. Precipitation of the vapor of the atmosphere when temperature is below freezing. It falls in flakes, each which is a distinct crystal or a combination of crystals. r 1,000 different forms of crystals have been observed. See L and ICE FLOWERS. Snow Shed. Built over a railroad cut to prevent the ac- nowball-Tree. Cultivated form of the Cranberry-tree, urnum opulus, a shrub of the natural family Caprifoliaceae; own also as Guelder-rose. Snowberry. Symphoricarpus racemosus. White-berried -ub of the natural family Caprifoliacea; native of n. N. merica, much planted for ornament. Snowberry, CREEPING. Chiogenes hispidula. Low, whiterried plant of the Heath family, native of deep woods in n. America. Snuff. Powder used as an errhine. Tobacco is the usual Snuff Bottles. The use of snuff was common among the Gallinaceous birds Snowdrop Tree. See SILVER-BELL TREE. winter Flemish animal painter; a Soap. In its widest sense, metallic salt of a fat acid; com- Soap-Bulb. Chlorogalum pommeridianum. Bulbous herb 2. In 1. Massive variety of TALC (q.v.). Sobieski, JOHN III., 1624-1696. King of Poland from 1674; Sobraon. Village of n. India, on the Sutlej; scene of a commodities for the machinery, and all o Social Contrac plied, regulating the forming the foundati Social Democr Lassalle 1862, and dev his followers. It bec subjected to a govern little sign of diminuti Social Duties. beings, as justice and See As Socialia. Socialism. Propos element of competition the State more extensi ity of conditions exist Socialists of the universities and their the inadequacy of indi of a greater extent of S Social Psycholo; Social Sanction, the approval and good ness arising from their Social Science. Social War. 90-88 B.C. 2. Between Social Wealth. viduals composing a 1. E S Social Workshop in which, by the use of c production should be ca The istic organization. shops of the Revolution Societies. Organiz complishment of some ment of science, literatu Societies, COLLEGE society in U. S. was the ters of this exist at ma ciety, without secrecy, Following this were a n was training in composi originated with the Ka Coll. 1825. This was fol at the same college in such societies have been motion of social interc bined with literary cult a number of colleges. I members lodge and hold a council or convention establish rules of govern members and periodicals Graduate chapter houses is usually a pin or key, b Society Islanders. tiful physique, who inva a darker race, who had n tian, they were celebrate sexes, which was so exte appearance of being clo special occasions, and d stones. See TAHITIANS. Society Islands. lat. 16-18 S., long. 148 123 SOCIAL CONTRACT-SODAMIDE ities for the sustenance of workers, and raw materials, ry, and all other aids to production. al Contract. Supposed agreement, expressed or imgulating the relation of citizens with one another, and the foundation of civil society. 1 Democracy. Movement in Germany, begun by 1862, and developed under the influence of Marx and vers. It became a political influence 1871, and was a to a government proscription 1878-90, but has shown n of diminution. 1 Duties. Those which we owe to our fellow human s justice and benevolence. lia. See ASCIDIANS and TERMITES. lism. Proposed reorganization of society, in which the of competition should be less prevalent, the action of more extensive, and, as a consequence, greater equalditions exist among the members of the community. lists of the Chair. Certain teachers in German es and their disciples in other countries, who teach quacy of individual competition and the desirability er extent of State intervention in industry. Psychology. See PSYCHOLOGY. Sanction, IN ETHICS. Pleasures that come from val and good-will of our fellowmen, or unpleasantng from their disapprobation and dislike. Science. See SOCIOLOGY. War. 1. Between Rome and her Italian allies, 2. Between Athens and her allies 358-355 B.C. Wealth. Sum total of the wealth of the indiomposing a social group. Workshops. Institutions proposed by Louis Blanc, by the use of capital loaned by the State, co-operative should be carried on, forming the basis for a socialization. They were travestied in the National Workhe Revolution of 1848. ies. Organized association of persons for the ac- Islands. Mountainous group in the Pacific, in 1411 from 1842, annexed in 1880, and the latter in 1885. They are Swiss Orientalist, prof. Leipzig. Socinus, LELIUS (LELIO SOZZINI), 1525-1562. Italian reformer and refugee. His papers passed to his nephew, FAUSTUS, 1539-1604, who spread his doctrines, anticipating modern rationalism and Unitarianism, through Poland, and endured much persecution. His followers, the Socinians, prospered for a time, but were condemned as traitors by the Diet of Warsaw, 1658, and driven into exile. lations; including Politics, Economics, and Ethics, as distincSociology. Science which treats of man in his social retive subjects, and those principles which underlie these and all other relations of men to one another. Socotra. Island in Indian Ocean, 220 m. s. of Arabia, and 140 e. of Cape Guardafui; held by Gt. Britain 1835-39 and since 1886. Area 1,380 sq. m., pop. ab. 10,000. of mixed blood, chiefly Arab and negro. Socrates, 469-399 B.C. Athenian philosopher, famous from his personal characteristics no less than the nature of his doctrines; founder of the psychological method; teacher of Plato, and critic of the Sophists; accused of corrupting Athenian youth and condemned to drink hemlock. He applied scientific dialectics to practical questions, originated "the Socratic method" for gaining truth by means of question and answer, Socrates-Marble Bust in Villa Albani at Rome. Socrates, 5th cent. Church historian, resident of Constan- Soda. See SODIUM CARBONATE. Soda Ash. Commercial sodium carbonate. Sodalite. 3Na,Al,Si,O,+2NaCl. Sodium aluminium silicate combined with a small quantity of chloride; important constituent of some crystalline rocks. Sodamide. NaNH,. Greenish or red crystalline mass formed by passing dry ammonia SODA NITER-SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE r. Natural SODIUM NITRATE (q.v.). er. Water charged with carbon dioxide under named because acid sodium carbonate is some- making the carbon dioxide. Or NATRIUM. Na. At. wt. 23.05, sp. gr. .979, sp. . 95.6° C., valence I.; discovered by Davy 1807; buted in nature, occurring as the chloride in sea k-salt and Chili saltpeter; very light, soft, silvery which rapidly oxidizes in the air. It decomposes ting hydrogen. It is kept under benzine or peprevent the action of the air; even then it gradEs coated with a layer of the oxide and hydroxide, ases with time. The metals sodium, potassium, may be kept bright by being rubbed with a rag ture of 3 parts petroleum and 1 part amyl alcohol, very white, then removed to petroleum containing amyl alcohol, washed with petroleum, and placed m containing 0.5 to 1 per cent of amyl alcohol. us, the metal retains its silvery luster for a long inally becomes covered with a coating of the amylmay be easily removed by rubbing. It was formerly obtained by , METALLURGY OF. a mixture of sodium carbonate and charcoal to a , or of caustic soda and iron filings to a red heat, nsing in a flat, book-shaped condenser the vapors of Sodium Bicarbonate. NaHCO,. Primary or acid sodium carbonate: white solid, made by passing carbon dioxide into a solution of sodium carbonate in water; used in medicine, in baking powders, and for effervescing beverages. Sodium Borate. See BORAX. Sodium Bromate. NaBrO,. Small, lustrous, regular crystals; mpt. 384° C., sp. gr. 3.33; soluble in water; made by treating caustic soda with bromine. Manufacturing Sodium by the Iron Process. driven off. This is now entirely superseded by the er process of electrolytically decomposing fused caustic which melts at 312° C. and is electrolyzed at 316°; at 318° the current separates out very little metal, and at 325° ectrolysis yields no sodium. Each pot requires 7 horseof current to run it, at a tension of 5 volts, and pro1 lb. of sodium per hour. The same current that pers the electrolysis develops sufficient heat in transit to the bath at the proper temperature. A plant at Oldbury, and, produces 1 tons of sodium per day; a 500 horser plant started 1897 at Niagara Falls, of a ton. The presmarket price is 50 cts. per lb. Its uses are in making aniyes, antipyrine, sodium cyanide (a substitute for potassium ide), sodium peroxide (a valuable bleach for silk and wool, a useful laboratory reagent), and in quickening the amalating action of mercury on gold ores. Sodium Bromide. NaBr. White solid; made by treating caustic soda with bromine, evaporating to dryness, and ble with difficulty in alcohol, and is very similar to POTASSIUM igniting the residue with carbon. It melts at 708° C., is soluBROMIDE (q.v.). Soda. AnhySodium Carbonate. Na,CO3+10H,O. drous sodium carbonate has sp. gr. 2.47, is soluble in 6 parts of water at 10° C., 2 parts if boiling water, has an alkaline taste and reaction, melts at a red heat and crystallizes with 62.69 per cent water. In the Le Blanc process it is made from sodium chloride, common salt, by treating with sulphuric acid; the sulphate thus formed is heated with coal and calcium carbonate, and lixiviated with water, leaving calcium sulphide undissolved and sodium carbonate in solution; this is evaporated, and the residue heated, when it loses all its water, formAnother process in use is the ing the soda ash of commerce. Solvay or Ammonia process. Sodium chloride in solution is treated with ammonium bicarbonate, when sodium bicarbonate is formed; this, being more insoluble than the ammonium It is also made chloride formed at the same time, crystallizes out. On heating it is converted into sodium carbonate. from cryolite. It is manufactured in enormous quantities for use in making glass, soap, for household and a variety of other purposes. It was formerly obtained from the ashes of plants. Sodium Chlorate. NaCIO,. Colorless tetrahedral crystals of the regular system; mpt. 302° C., sp. gr. 2.29; soluble in water; strong oxidizing substance, used in the manufacture of aniline-black; made by passing chlorine into a solution of caustic soda. It is now made by electrolyzing a solution of salt. Sodium Chloride. NaCl. Salt, occurring widely distributed in the earth (see RoCK SALT), springs, lakes, and sea water, which contains ab. 2.7-3.2 per cent of salt. In some localities it is mined, in others water is used to dissolve it; the solution is then evaporated. In hot countries, the sun's heat is utilized for evaporating ocean water. It crystallizes in colorless cubes, melts at 776° C., and is used as the starting point in the preparation of other sodium compounds, for freezing mixtures, packing meats, soap-making, and for culinary purposes. See SALT. odium Alcoholate. C,H,ONa. White crystalline comnd. formed by the action of metallic sodium upon absolute hol; easily decomposed by water, forming alcohol and caussoda; used largely in synthesis of organic compounds. odium Alum. Na,SO..Al, (SO4)3+24H,O. Similar in its perties to potassium and ammonium alums, and more diffit to prepare, since it is more soluble than these; not manutured on a large scale. See ALUMS. Sodium Aluminium Fluoride. See CRYOLITE. Sodium Amalgam. Made by dropping sodium upon ated mercury. A number of different amalgams may be obned by varying the proportions of the constituents. A ystallized compound of the formula Hg,Na is known, and is ed for obtaining hydrogen in alkaline solutions. Sodium Ammonium Hydrogen Phosphate. HNaH,PO.. Microcosmic salt; white crystalline salt, found in ano and decomposing urine; used in the laboratory for Lowpipe work, its value depending on the fact that at high emperatures it combines with many metallic oxides, forming Sodium Chromate. Na,CrO,+10H,O. Made by fusing chromic oxide and sodium nitrate, and evaporating the solution at low temperatures: deliquescent, yellow prisms; of alkaline reaction and a bitter, metallic taste. Sodium Dichromate. Na,Cr2O,+2H20. Yellowish-red solid, very similar to potassium dichromate, and now frequently used in place of it, the sodium compound being cheaper. Sodium Dioxide. Na,O2. Peroxide. Pure white mass, made by heating sodium nitrate or igniting sodium in oxygen. It does not decompose on heating. See SODIUM. Sodium Diuranate. Na,U,O,. Uranium Yellow. Made by heating pitchblend, containing 40 to 50 per cent of uranium oxide (U,O.) and lime in a reverberatory furnace; used for painting on glass and porcelain, and as a pigment for coloring glass. Sodium Fluoride. NaF. Colorless, at times opalescent cubes. Decrepitating on heating; sp. gr. 2.76, mpt. 902° C.; slowly and slightly soluble in water; made by neutralizing sodium carbonate with hydrofluoric acid. Sodium Hydrazoate. NaN,. Well crystallized, easily soluble substance, very similar in appearance and properties to sodium chloride; made by treating sodium amide with nitrous oxide. Sodium Hydride. Na,H. Very similar to POTASSIUM HYDRIDE (q.v.), and made in the same way. Acid sodium Sodium Hydrogen Sulphate. NaHSO.. sulphate; triclinic prisms, obtained by treating sodium sulphate with sulphuric acid; decomposed by alcohol into the free acid and normal salt. Caustic soda, sodic hy Sodium Hydroxide. NaOH. drate; very similar to the potassium compound, used more extensively because cheaper; made by treating sodium carbonate in solution with calcium hydroxide; used in the laboratory and for making soap. Sodium Hypobromite. Similar to SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE (q.v.). Sodium Hypochlorite. NaOCl. Known only as mixed with sodium chloride in the liquid obtained by passing chlorine into cold, dilute caustic soda. Sodium Hyp made by treating zinc, or by passing tion; used by dyer indigo. This is no also SODIUM THIOSU Sodium Iodat proportions of wate Chili saltpeter; mad carbonate. Sodium Iodide Sodium Monox Sodium Peroxid Sodium Platinic triclinic prisms or tab of platinic chloride wit alcohol. Sodium Silicate. Sodium Stannate ing with the method of also forms a di-, tri-, tet gr. 3.45; very soluble in water; prepared in the same Anhydrous cubes; mpt. 628-633° POTASSIUM BROMIDE (q.v.). ium Metaborate. NaBO,+4H,O. White, crystallid, obtained by adding the proper quantity of sodium ide to a solution of borax and evaporating to crystal um Monoxide. Na,O. Gray mass, conchoidal fractde by heating caustic soda with sodium. um Nitrate. NaNO,. Chili saltpeter occurs in large s in the rainless districts of Chili, at an altitude of 3,000 eru and Bolivia; containing 27 to 65 per cent of the pure ce, the impurities being common salt, gypsum and soIphate. Deposits have been reported from Nevada and -xico. It is used largely in the manufacture of nitric tificial manures, and for certain kinds of powders which required to fire quickly. um Nitrite. Similar to POTASSIUM NITRITE (q.v.). um Perchlorate. NaClO,+H,O. Hygroscopic leafhombohedra, losing water at 45° C.; made by treating rate with nitric acid. um Periodates. Sundry compounds, the simplest the formula NaIO.+3H,O; made by passing chlorine arm solution of sodium iodate and treating the product ric acid. am Peroxide. See SODIUM DIOXIDE. am Phosphates. Transparent rhombic crystals; made by adding Primary Sodium Phosphate. ric acid to common phosphate of soda (see below). dary Sodium Phosphate. Na,HPO,+12H,O. Best f these compounds; generally called common phossoda; made by treating phosphoric acid with sodium e until alkaline; also from bone-ash; used in medicine purgative. The commercial compound usually conHium sulphate.-Tertiary Sodium Phosphate (Orthoe). Na,PO.+12H,O. Made by treating secondary ce with caustic soda and evaporating. It absorbs ioxide, and has an alkaline reaction.-Sodium Metae. NaPO.. Formed by igniting the primary phosSodium Pyrophosphate. Na,P,O,+10H,O. Colorless bstance, made by igniting the secondary phosphate. m Platinic Chloride. Na,PtCl,+6H,O. prisms or tables, obtained by evaporating a solution c chloride with sodium chloride; soluble in water and Red, m Silicate. Na,SiO2. Water glass; made by fusquartz) with sodium carbonate; soluble in water, the being used to give objects a transparent glassy coatin the manufacture of artificial stone, silicated soaps, nting, and in dunging calico. m Stannate. Na,SnO,. Made by fusing tin-stone stic soda, or by heating tin with sodium nitrate and oda; made in large quantities for use in calico-printeparing salts or mordant. m Sulphantimonato. See SCHLIPPE'S SALT. m Sulphate. Na,SO.+10H,O. Glauber's salt. It small quantities in nature and in a number of natu, and is made in large quantities in the manufacture the action of sulphuric acid on sodium chloride, and nitric acid from Chili saltpeter. It is efflorescent, ed as a purgative in medicine, for the production of old in the laboratory, in the manufacture of sodium - and of glass. The anhydrous salt is called Salt-cake. m Sulphide. Na,S. Solid substance, in color varyhe method of preparation; soluble in water; the sodily passing to the thiosulphate; made by passing sulphide over heated caustic soda in lumps. Sodium a di-, tri-, tetra-, and pentasulphide; see the correpotassium compounds. m Sulphite. Na,SO,+7H,O. Transparent crysned by passing sulphur dioxide into a solution of bonate and evaporating. Thiosulphate. Na,S,O,+5H,O. Better known hyposulphite or "Hypo"; made by treating caustic sulphur and then passing sulphur dioxide into the ased as an antichlor in the 1413 and extensively in photography to dissolve the excess of the Dead Sea. See CITIES OF THE PLAIN. BAZZI), ab. 1477-1549. In some pictures he Among his few works Villa at Rome. The St. Sebastian of the Uffizi in Florence Soetbeer, ADOLF, 1814-1892. Prof. Göttingen 1872; writer Sofala. Portion of s.e. coast of Africa from the Zambesi to Delagoa Bay. It has disused mine workings near Zimbabwe. It has belonged to Portugal since 1505. Soffit. Interior cylindrical surface of a stone arch. Sofia, or SOPHIA. Capital of Bulgaria; on a branch of the Isku, near the Balkan Mts.; anciently Serdica; seat of a council 343; held by Turks 1382-1878; of recent development and importance. Pop. ab.48,000. Softas. Mohammedan students of theology; very numerous, and often active in politics. Softs, or SOFTSHELLS. Democratic faction in N. Y. 1852-60, disinclined to co-operate with Southern pro-slavery Democrats. Soft-shelled Crabs. Commercial name given to swimming crabs after the shell is cast and before the new shell has hardened. Cancer pagurus is the edible crab. Sogdiana. Province of ancient Persian empire ab.540-332 Sohn, KARL FERDINAND, 1805-1867. German painter, prof. Sohrab. Only son of Rustum, king of Persia, whom, un- Soignies. Old town of Hainault, Belgium, 22 m. s. of Brus- rocks and |