5. Manufactures are nternal trade is very mineral wealth, gold. Coal is found in the nufactured in several - Caucasus. Railroads ent with almost unexm. were in operation. is an absolute mon , consisting of 8800GÜ 327 vessels, mounting g. on the Neva. Other Kharkov, and Odessa ources of the Dniester, Kieff being their chief e Norman Rurik came a, widow and successor gan reign followed, out ty 988, and did much to rward divided and sub! ongol invasion took place 235. destroying Moscow, d Kieff, and founded the Sarrested, and R. throw -The growth of Litho vored by the prostration -, 1358-89, obtained a vo

Post-House.

Tartars afterward twice i -1505, their yoke was shaker During the minority of Iva evailed, but from 1547 to the >manoff he administered t

he afterward became sus of Rurik ended 1598 with s i was murdered. Pretendes gned; the King of Poland errun by Tartars, Poles, itch Romanoff, 1612-45, being ountry from foreigners, and tatives to aid the restoration i, a new code was drawn Czar was granted; Little B 2. were added to the empi (q.v.), 1689-1725, was of gre elf and others to severe dis arts he sought to introdu rule of his successors. Pet le Catharine II., 1763-96, w ow divided into government tively in European affairs Nicholas II. 1825-55, carried extending his dominicas, Black Sea, Dardaneles s by the Crimean War. Alen om and other abuses, Pol Caucasus conquered; war 77, in defense of the right 1 by the independence of . under Turkish suzerainty, new State of Eastern Boume ing period has be The succes

the ass

94

Russian Backgammon. Game in which the men are not set on the board at the opening of the game, but are entered by both players, who move in the same direction on the same table. When doublets are thrown, the numbers on the opposite sides of the dice are also played, and the player has another throw.

Russian Language. Chief Slavonic language, with two branches, Russian proper and Ruthenian. Its records date from the 11th century, and the literature is growing in importance. There are three dialects, Little, White, and Great Russian, the last being the official and literary language and that of a large majority of the population and which can be understood by all. The alphabet is credited to St. Cyril and St. Methodius of the 9th century, the Greek alphabet with some additions, now used in devotional books. That now in use is the Cyrilian, with some omissions, introduced by Peter the Great; it consists of 36 letters.

Russian Leather. See LEATHER.

Russian Literature. This really began with the reign of Peter the Great, although the Old Church Slavonic, into which Cyril and Methodius translated the Scriptures when they Christianized the western Slavic tribes, contains a number of authors, the most important being the Chronicle of Nestor (11th cent.), the Chronicles of Novgorod, Moscow, Tver, etc., and several lives. The Tartar invasion blotted out all literary ambition and the universal ignorance soon made it impossible. The Zadonchina, an epic poem, and the Domostroi, or Housekeeper's Manual, from the time of Ivan the Terrible, are extant, the latter by the monk Sylvester. Peter the Great encouraged literature, and the theologian and economist Pososhkov, 1670-1726, the satirist poet Prince Antiokh Kantemir, and the first historian of Russia, Vasisli Tatistchev, belong to his reign. Trediaskovski, 1703-1769, was a translator; Lemonosov, 1711-1765, exerted great influence upon the form of the language and changed the syllabic prosody to the tonic system now used. Other poets were Sumarokov, 1718-1777; Khiazhnin, 1742-1791; and Kheraskov. 1733-1801. Karamzin, under Catharine II., wrote Letters of a Traveler and a Russian History. The Romantic school was founded by Alexander Pushkin, 1799-1838, and Zhukovskii, 1783-1852, and comprised Kozlov, Batiushkov, the poet Ryleev, Lermontov, Polevoi, and others, ending with Tiuchev, Koltsov, and Krylov, the latter's fables being famous. The Realistic writers begin with Gogol, 1809-1852, and comprise many novelists, the most noted being Alexander Hertzen, Tourgenief. 1818-1883; Dostoevskii, 18221881; Count Lev Tolstoi, b. 1828; to which we must add the lesser writers, Goncharov, Pisemskii, Pisarev. Vasilii Krestovskii, Potekhin, Sologub and Gleb Aspendii. The satirist Soltykov, the Nihilist Chernyshevskii, Garshin, and Korolenko deserve mention. Other writers of the later period are Maikov, Khomiakov, Nekrasov, Shenshin, Polonskii, Mei, Nikitin, Stcherbina, Plestcheev, and the Grand Duke Konstantin, whose poetry is admired. Several of the above have won fame as dramatists, with whom we must mention Aleksei Tolstoï. The most celebrated historians are Karamzin, Soloviev, and Kostomarov.

Russian Music. Until the very recent advent of the School of Young Russian Composers, the characteristics of Russian national music found only sporadic expression outside of the ancient melodies, preserved in the Breviary and the people's songs. Early church music was largely borrowed from Greek and Bulgarian sources. Until ab. 1700 it remained unisonal. With the cultivation of artistic music in the theater under Peter the Great 1703-25 and his immediate successors, the Italian influence became dominant, and it was deemed necessary to command the use of the ancient melodies. The present style, which contains features of wonderful impressiveness, despite the fact that it is exclusively vocal, came in with BARTNANSKY (q.v.). During the 18th century foreign influences also dominated concert and opera, singers, conductors and composers who worked for the national institutions in St. Petersburg being chiefly Italians and Frenchmen, as Galuppi, Traetta, Sarti, Cimarosa, Boieldieu, and Martini. Sarti set the fashion of composing to words, and C. Cavos wrote 14 operas with Russian texts and subjects. The first distinctively national tendency manifested itself in the operas of VERSTOVSKI and GLINKA (q.v.); the latter's Life for the Czar won almost universal recognition. Since then distinguished operatic composers have been Lwoff, A. Rubinstein, Cui, Dargomyzski, and Rimski-Korsakow. The Young Russian School is now represented by the last three of these and Borodin. According to Cesar Cui, the foundation stones on which it has been reared are these: 1. Aside from the words, all dramatic music must have value per se, as absolute music. 2. Music written for words must reflect the spirit of the poem. 3. Every composition must reflect characteristic traits. The last element is

Russium. One of the doubtful elements; discov accompanying thorium in monacite.

Russo-Greek Church. Number of adherents 73,000,000. See GREEK CHURCH.

Russo-Turkish War. 1877-78; occasioned by r in Bulgaria; ended by the fall of Plevna, Dec. 10, aft siege and severe conflicts. Russia was robbed of the her victory by the treaty of Berlin, July 13, 1878.

Rustam. Chief of Persian mythical heroes; celel Firdausi. His duel with his son Sokrat has been sung thew Arnold.

Rustchuk. Town of Bulgaria, on the Danube; the Russians after a siege 1810, and held till 1812;

again by the Russians 1877-78. It forms one angle Turkish Quadrilateral. Pop., 1893, 28,121.

Rustem Pasha, d. 1895. Turkish Ambassador t Russia, and from 1885 to England.

Rustic Work. Masonry wherein the faces of th only wrought smooth. are left rough, the sides where the union takes plac

Rüstow, WILHELM, 1821-1878. German-Swiss sold writer. Geschichte der Infanterie, 1857-58; Strategie u tik, 1872-75.

Rusts. Popular name of the Uredinaceae, a family sitic Fungi growing on a great number of plants, t they give a rusty or brown appearance. The number o species is very large and many of them are highly des to cultivated plants. Many of them have two stages life history, one being produced on one plant, the oth different species, as the wheat rust, which lives du stage on wheat and other grasses, and during the othe barberry.

Rust University. At Holly Springs, Miss.; oper controlled by Methodists. It has 15 instructors and students.

Rut. Breeding time or period of heat of animals, es of Mammals. This is usually in spring, but in Rumin the close of summer, and in Swine and Carnivores in The time of its occurrence is determined by the lengt period of gestation, so that the birth of the young sha at the most advantageous season.

Rutabaga. See TURNIP, SWEDE.

Rutaceæ. Natural family of flowering plants, of Angiosperma and sub-class Dicotyledons, comprising genera and ab. 900 species, distributed throughout perate and warmer parts of the earth; most numerous tralia and in s. Africa; called the Rue family.

Rutebeuf, d. ab.1280. French poet, strongest i and satires.

Ruten. Semitic Palestinian people with whom th tians waged war under the 18th and 19th dynasties.

Rutgers College. At New Brunswick, N. J.; cl as Queen's Coll. 1766, to prepare for the Reformed Dut istry; twice suspended; reopened 1825. The Scientific was opened 1863; the State Agricultural Coll. was loca 1864. Teaching staff, 27; students 182, 131 of whom science; library, 33,560 vols.

Ruth. 8th O. T. book, of uncertain authorship a an idyll of the fortunes of a young Moabite widow grandmother of David.

Ruthenian Rite. Branch of the R. C. Ch., w rule speak the Russniak language. They are United Greeks of Austria-Hungary and Poland, nu ab. 2,655,000.

mos

and of offerings. They have been looked upon as the abode of certain gods, and resorted to, as the oracle of Dodona in Epirus, where Zeus was believed to give messages to men through the rustling of the leaves of a lofty oak.

Sacred War. Between Thebes and Boeotia 357-346 B.C.; ended by intervention of Philip.

Sacrifice. Institution of all ancient religions. With the Hebrews it was of several kinds, chiefly burnt-offerings and sin-offerings: all were propitiatory, and symbolical of the supreme sacrifice of Christ, as explained in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Human sacrifices were common among pagans, as with Phoenicians, Druids, and Aztecs.

Sacrilege. Violation of sacred things or places: punishable among Jews, capitally under Roman law, and in various degrees in Christian countries; now obsolete.

Sacristy, or VESTRY. Room in which ch. vessels and vestments are kept; formerly in care of a sacristan, whence the

Ancient Sacristy-Scuola della Misericordia, Venice, by Palladio. word sexton. It is within the walls of the church or an Adjunct. In England it is called a Vestry.

Sacrobosco, or Holywood, JOHN, d. ab.1250. English mathematician, teaching at Paris. His De Sphæra Mundi, from an Arabic version of Ptolemy's Almagest, was pub. 1472 and often later.

Sacrum. Next to the last bone of the spinal column. It is wedge-shaped with its base up, inserted between the hipbones, forming, with the coccyx, the posterior wall of the pelvis.

Sacs AND Foxes (SAUKS and OUTAGAMIES). Branch of the Shawnees with the Kickapoos: originally discovered in the territory from Green Bay s. They number ab.1,200. Those in Iowa are farmers; those on reservations in Indian Territory are less civilized. Black Hawk, a Pottawatomie by birth, was chief of the Sacs and Foxes. They ceded their lands e. of the Mississippi to U. S. 1804.

Sacy, ANTOINE ISAAC, BARON SILVESTRE DE, 1758-1838. Great French investigator in Arabic and Persian; prof. Paris 1815; Baron 1813, Peer 1832. Grammaire Arabe, 1810.-His son, SAMUEL USTAZADE. 1801-1879. journalist, became an Academician 1855, and a Senator 1867. Variétés, 1858.

Sacy, LOUIS ISAAC LE MAISTRE DE, 1613-1684. French priest, nephew of the abbess Angélique; confessor of the Port Royal nuns; translator of the Bible 1667-72.

Saddle. Top of a convex fold in geological strata or in ore deposits; if the top has been removed by erosion, the lost portion is called an air saddle.

Saddle. Saddle-shaped casting placed upon the top of a tower of a suspension bridge to support the cables. It also allows a slight degree of motion, which prevents the horizontal pull of the cable from taking effect on the tower.

Saddle and Saddlery. The harness of horses, mules, etc. In U. S. domestic steer hides, tanned with bark, are used for harness; russet skirting is bleached after scouring. A saddle is a seat for the rider on the back of a horse. The Roman cavalry had beautiful coverings on their horses, as did the Persians. The saddle was invented ab. 350; stirrups were added in the 6th century. The English saddles of the 13th century were similar to those now used and the women sat sidewise. The saddles of the cavaliers had high peaks before and behind, like those of the present Spaniards and Mexicans, and the holsters for pistols were fastened to the pommel. The McClellan saddle of the U. S. cavalry is a modification of this. A saddle

the wooden saddle tree

padded undon Alana

English saddle. The McClellan saddle has no paddi covered with rawhide. The side saddle for women o in England in 1380, the present form with the third p 1830. See HARNESS.

Saddle-Bars. Iron bars to which the lead pa fastened in the glazing of church windows.

Sadducees. Aristocrats of later Judaism; few high rank, wealthy and worldly. They adhered to t of Scripture, denied tradition and the life to come, a that the hope of it deadened the energy of patriotis maintained Free Will, as against the Predestinarianis Pharisees.

Sade, DONATIEN ALPHONSE, MARQUIS DE, 1740-1814. novelist of the fleshly school.

Sadebeck, ALEXANDER, 1843-1879. Prof. Kiel; w mineralogy. Angewandte Krystallographie, 1876, tr. a of Rose's Elements of Crystallography.

Sadi, or SAADI (MUSLIH-UDDIN), ab. 1184-1291. Persi and didactic poet of great fame. Next to his Gulistan, garden, is the Bostan and Pend-Nameh.

Sadler, SIR RALPH, 1507-1587. Thrice Envoy to S knighted 1547; Privy Councilor under Edward VI. an beth; jailer of Mary Stuart at Tutbury 1562. Letter repub. 1809.

Sadlier, MARY ANNE (MADDEN), b. 1820. Irish-A R. C. novelist.

Sadoleto, JACOPO, 1477-1547. Secretary to 3 por of Carpentras 1517, Cardinal 1536; correspondent of reformers; author of commentaries, letters, and books losophy. His works were collected 1737 and 1759.

Sadowa, or Königgrätz, BATTLE OF. In Bohen cisive Prussian victory, July 3, 1866, over the Austrian Benedek, who lost 40,000 men. This gave the supren Prussia, unity to N. Germany, Venetia to Italy, and leg independence to Hungary.

Safe. Strong case for containing money, accoun and other valuables, provided with means to protec from fire and burglars. See FIREPROOF SAFES and Loc

Safed. Town 6 m. n. w. of Sea of Galilee; site of built by Crusaders 1140 and by Templars 1240; destro Mohammedans 1220 and 1266; colonized by Jews in 16th c

Safety Lamp. Lamp for use in mines, especial mines, where gases are liable to rise which form explos tures with air. The lamp is so constructed as to hin flame from coming in contact with the explosive mixtu rounding it, though the presence of a dangerous gas indicated by changes in the character of the flame in terior of the lamp. The first efficient lamps of this typ invented almost simultaneously in England 1815, by Stephenson and Sir H. Davy, the principle being that nary lamp flame will not pass through the meshes gauze, provided the gauze be kept from becoming too heated. In the lamp invented by Dr. Clauny 1814, an a was made to protect the flame by means of a globe of but the contrivance was too cumbrous for general ad The earlier forms of lamps have been modified many ti in many ways by different inventors, with a view to ren defects in construction and to increasing the efficiency protection afforded in cases of exceptional danger. number of patterns are now used in different parts of the

Safety-Valve. Valve on a vessel in which there i ure, which is held shut by such a force only that the va be pressed open for the release of pressure when that p exceeds a certain amount. There are four types: 1. load of the valve by a weight. This is limited to re small pressures, and is inconvenient always. 2. We directly bearing on a lever to keep the valve shut. the most usual form, and has the advantage and disady of allowing the amount of pressure to be easily varied: may bind to prevent the valve from moving. 3. Direc ure by a spring; much used in newer practice, and in t of pop-valve universal on locomotives; compact and lig easily tampered with. When the reaction groove is cu face, so that when once lifted a larger area is opened escape of steam and the valve is held up as by a less p the objection is removed to the small opening which creasing resistance of the spring would cause as the o valve lifts. 4. Indirect loading by a spring through This is least used now, though once the standard loc method. Safety valves for steam boilers are usual nomers, as in most cases they would not carry off all th which the boiler would make. The area of the orifice

L