1148 PELOPIDAS-PENCIL Pelopidas, d. 864 B.C. Theban patriot, associate of Epaminondas. Banished 382, he overthrew the Spartan power and expelled the polemarchs from Thebes 379; led the Sacred Band at Leuctra 371; was Ambassador to Susa 366, and was killed at Cynocephalæ. Peloponnesian War. 431-404 B.C.; between Athens and the s. Greek states, supported by their colonies. The destruction of the Athenian fleet and army at Syracuse 413 was fatal; and the war ended most unfortunately for civilization with the capture of Athens by the Spartans 404. Its history was brilliantly written by Thucydides. Peloponnesus. Peninsula of Greece; now Morea. Pelops. Son of Tantalus; king of Elis; father of Atreus and Thyestes; honored above all heroes at Olympia. Peloria. Condition of monstrosity, especially in certain plants of the Snapdragon family, in which, instead of only one lobe of the corolla being extended into a spur, as is the normal state, the other four lobes are also spurred; also, more broadly, regular forms of flowers which are normally irregular. Pels, ANDRIES, 17th cent. Dutch dramatist and poet. Peltate. In Botany, leaves or other organs having the stalk inserted on the lower surface of the lamina, instead of at the base, so as to become shield-shaped. Peltier's Effect. Thermo-electric phenomenon, first observed by Peltier. Consider a junction of two metals, A and B, such that, when this is made the hot junction in a thermoelectric circuit, the current is from A to B. If now a current from some external source be made to pass through that junction from A to B, the junction will be cooled; while if the direction be from B to A, it will be heated. A similar phenomenon was observed by Thomson to take place within a single metal, and in this case is known as the Thomson effect. E.g., hot iron is thermo-electrically positive to colder iron, and hence a current made to pass in either direction tends to exaggerate the existing differences of temperature. This is reversed in the case of copper. Peltry. Skins of wild animals undressed except by drying; dressed skins being called furs. Pelusium. City on e. mouth of the Nile; key of Egypt. Here Cambyses defeated Psammetichus III. 525 B.C. It surrendered to Alexander 333, was taken by Persians 309, by Antiochus 178, by Mark Antony 55, by Octavian 31 B.C., and by the Saracens A.D. 638. Pelvis. Lower part of the trunk; a basin-like cavity Adult Human Pelvis, in situ: formed by the union e attachments for the a, lumbar vertebra; b, sacrum; c, coccyx; d, illum; e, Pemba. Coral island 30 m. n. of Zanzibar, belonging to the British protectorate of Zanzibar. It produces excellent m., pop. ab. 10,000. timber. Area 227 sq. Pemberton, JOHN CLIFFORD, 1814-1881. U. S. officer 1837- Pemberton, MAX, b. ab. 1860. English romancer; ed. Cas- Pemmican. 1. Dried venison or buffalo meat, used by Pemphigus. Inflammatory disease of the skin marked Pen. Writing instruments of two general kinds, those which scratch and those which use ink. The former are the more ancient and consist of a stylus made of bone or metal a leaf, a waxed tablet, a sheet of lead, a was applied was made 500 The pen was used to write on when the quill came into use. bark, leaves, papyrus, skins, and paper. Modern pens are made entirely of metals. A bronze nibbed pen was found at and dies and carefully tempered. Birmingham, Eng., is a large manufacturer; U. S. has several factories, producing one and Pompeii. The steel pens are made by a succession of stamps a half million gross, and imports half a million gross. Penæaceæ. Natural family of flowering plants, of the class Angiosperma and sub-class Dicotyledons, comprising 4 genera and ab. 20 species, natives of s. Africa. Penal Colonies. England sent convicts to Virginia 16191770, when the colonists refused to receive them longer; subAustralia, and British Guiana were utilized in a similar way till about the middle of the 19th century. Russia sends the sequently Botany Bay, Sydney, Tasmania, North and West majority of her criminals to the mines in Siberia. France sent convicts to French Guiana 1853-64 and Communists to New Caledonia 1871. Other European states have gotten rid of many of their convicts by transportation. See PRISONS. Penal Servitude. Punishment introduced in lieu of transportation beyond the seas. Penalty. Punishment imposed either by law or by contract; excessive penalties are forbidden by U. S. Constitution. In the Middle Ages Penance. Self-mortification of any kind, inflicted as expiation of sin; in R. C. Ch., a sacrament. penances were various, heavy, and constantly in evidence. Penances, or FORFEITS. Children's game. Penances are properly the sequence of forfeits. The players are required to perform certain feats, and failing, give forfeits. These are The judge, without seeing the forfeit, passes sentence, to which later redeemed, one player acting as judge and one as forfeitthe owner of the article must submit in order to redeem his crier, who stands behind the judge and holds up the forfeit. property. Penang, or PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND. W. of Malay peninsula, at n. end of Strait of Malacca; held by Britain since 1785. It is covered with forests of palms and other tropical Penang. plants. It produces rice and sugar. Tin ore is also found. Georgetown or P. is the only town. It is situated on the strait which divides the island from the mainland. Area 107 sq. m., pop. ab. 100,000. Penātes. Guardian deities of the Roman household, and of the state as a union of households. Their images were kept in the penetralia, or central part of the house; the fire on the hearth was sacred to them. See LARES. Peña y Peña, MANUEL DE LA, 1789-1850. Member of Mexi can Supreme Court 1824, and long its head; acting Pres. of Mexico 1847-48. Pencil. Collection of rays, either of radiant energy o other form of wave motion. It may be convergent or diver gent. Pencil. Plumbago inclosed in a small wooden cylinder used as early as 1565. The plumbago is mixed with clay and water to form a dough, pressed through perforations in a meta cased in cedar. Colored pencils are made by mixing pigment or aniline colors with clay: 250 million pencils are made annu cylinder, dried and baked. The rods thus formed are then in ally at Nuremberg, Germ., Faber being a noted maker. Ther are large makers in U. S. PENCIL-PENN Pencil, AXIAL. Figure composed of planes, all embracing the same straight line, which is the axis of the pencil. Pencil, FLAT. Figure formed by straight lines in the same plane, proceeding from a common point. Penda. King of Mercia, England, 626-655; and champion of heathenism. He subdued East Anglia, Deira, and Wessex, defeated and killed Edwine of Northumbria 634, and was Bretwalda. The extinction of heathenism followed his death; slain by Oswes. Pend d'Oreille, LAKE. In n. Idaho, on Clark's Fork of the Columbia. Area 130 sq. m. Pendent. In Gothic Architecture, the keystone of a vault when projected from the ceiling and decorated; also applied to the protrusion of the hammer-beam in timber construction. Pendentine. Curved and inward sloping spandrel between two arches which support a circular or polygonal dome. It is a feature of frequent occurrence in the Byzantine, Saracenic, and Renaissance styles; in fact, a necessary feature in all architecture which admits a classical construction. Pendent-Post. In timber roofs, the straight pieces placed against the wall to receive the hammer-beams. Pender, WILLIAM DORSEY, 1834-1863. Major-gen. C.S.A. 1863; mortally wounded at Gettysburg. Pendergrast, GARRETT JESSE, U.S.N., 1802-1862. Captain 1855, Commodore 1862. He commanded the Cumberland off Norfolk 1861, and saved the U.S. vessels there from capture by threatening the city. Pendleton, EDMUND, 1721-1803. Delegate to Congress 1774-75: Pres. Va. Chancery Court 1778 and Court of Appeals from 1779.-His nephew, NATHANIEL, 1756-1821, was a Judge in Ga. and N.Y.-His grandson, GEORGE HUNT, 1825-1889, was M.C. from Ohio 1857-65, Democratic candidate for Vice-Pres. 1864, U.S. Senator 1879-85, and U.S. Minister to Germany 1885. Pendleton, LOUIS BEAUREGARD, b. 1861. American nov elist. Pendulum. A simple pendulum consists of a heavy particle, called the bob, suspended by a weightless cord from a fixed point, about which it can oscillate without friction. If the bob have a uniform circular motion in a horizontal plane. it constitutes a conical pendulum. If T be the time of a complete oscillation to and fro, 1 the length of the pendulum, and g the M mag acceleration of gravity; then T-27√(1). A compound pendulum is any rigid body fixed at only one point o, and capable of oscillating about this point under the action of gravity. The point o is called the CENTER OF SUSPENSION (q.v.), and a straight line through o perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called the axis of suspension. If m be the mass of a compound pendulum, a the distance from the center of suspension o to the center of gravity c, and M its moment of inertia about o, then Т=2π (2). Evidently the length L of a simple penM dulum that oscillates in the same time is or equal to the ma moment of inertia divided by the static moment. The point o' in a compound pendulum in the line of o and c at a distance L from o, is called the CENTER OF OSCILLATION (q.v.); the straight line through o', parallel to the axis of suspension, is called the axis of oscillation. The points o and o' are mutually interchangeable without affecting T, a principle discovered by Huyghens; the product of their distances from the center of gravity c, is k2, where k is the radius of gyration. The point o' is sometimes called the CENTER OF PERCUSSION (q.v.), since there is no reaction at o if the pendulum be struck at o'. Lis sometimes termed the radius of oscillation. If in equation (1), we substitute T-2 seconds, then 1- which is the length of a pendulum that makes a single vibration in one second. This is called a seconds pendulum. A cycloidal pendulum is one the bob of which, by simple mechanical means, is made to describe the arc of a cycloid instead of that of a circle. It has the advantage of being strictly isochronous, while a circular pendulum is not even approximately so except for small amplitudes. g πε Pendulum, BALLISTIC. Instrument invented about 1765 by Robins for determining the initial velocity of a projectile. It consists of a pendulum having a strong and heavy bob to receive the impact of the projectile. From the relation of the momentum of the projectile before impact to that of the pendulum and projectile after impact the velocity of the projectile at the instant of striking is readily deduced. 11. Penelope. Wife of Ulysses, King of Ithaca; during 1 absence of 20 years, besieged by importunate suitors, who Every night she undid the work of the previous day. she put off by saying she must first finish a shroud for Laerte Peneus. Chief river of Thessaly. It flows through t vale of Tempe. Pengelly, WILLIAM, 1812-1894. English geologist, e gaged for 13 years in exploring KENT'S CAVERN (q.v.), Torqua His reports conclusively established the coexistence of ma with many of the extinct mammalia. Penguins. Natatorial birds of the Antarctic Ocean. The opisthocoelous, the wings fin-like, the feathers scale-like; th show many features of a primitive type. The vertebræ a three short metatarsals are partly separate; the hallux turr forward and is webbed with the other three toes; the feather are narrow and cover the body uniformly. The leg is shor and placed far back; the foot is plantigrade. On land they si King-Penguin (Aptenodytes pennanti). bolt upright and progress by a waddling gait, except the Rockhopper, which moves both feet at a time. In diving the feet are used as rudders: they have no quills in their wings, which they use in water as paddles, moving them alternately. One white egg, 3 by 4 in., is laid in Oct. and incubated by both sexes for six weeks. They blow and scream like geese. A heavy layer of blubber exists beneath the skin. The voice of the Jackass Penguin resembles a bray. The King Penguin is 3 ft. high. Penhallow, SAMUEL, 1665-1726. Colonist at Portsmouth, N. H., ab.1690; Chief-justice from 1717. Indian Wars, 1703-26, 1726. Penicillate. In Botany and Zoology, organs or organisms tipped or margined by tufts of slender processes or hairs. Peninsular and Oriental Company. Chartered by Great Britain 1840 to carry mails and passengers between Great Britain and Australia, China, and India. It has about 60 vessels. Peninsular War. 1808-14, between the French and the combined forces of Spain, Portugal, and England, mainly under Wellington; ended by the victory of Toulouse, the French being driven out of the peninsula. It was caused by Napoleon's attempt to seat his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain. Penitential Psalms. 6, 82, 38, 51, 102, 130, and 143; so designated from ab. 200. Penitentiary. See PRISONS. Penn, JOHN, 1741-1788. Delegate to Congress from N. C. 1775-77 and 1779; signer of the Declaration of Independence. Penn, WILLIAM, 1644-1718. Founder of Pa. He received the grant of the province 1681 in compensation for a debt due his father, Admiral Penn, and was made proprietor of the colony, which he twice visited, 1682 and 1699. His administration was distinguished by the magnanimity and justice of his treatment of the native Indians. He was twice imprisoned as a Quaker, once in the Tower, 1668, where he wrote No Cross, No Crown, and 1671 in Newgate, where he composed The Great 1150 PENNE-PENNYROYAL Cause of Liberty of Conscience. His character and motives have been violently assailed by Macaulay, and vindicated by later writers. Two of his grandsons, JOHN, 1729-1795, and RICHARD, 1735-1811, were lieut.-governors of Pa. Pennæ. Contour feathers; they have stiff shafts and a firm vexillum or vane. acterized by the extensive mining of coal, both anthracite and | the Delaware, at the mouth of the Schuylkill; Pittsburg, at At West Philadelphia; Pennsylvania College. Established 1832 at Gettys Pennant, THOMAS, LL.D., F.R.S., 1726-1798. Welsh traveler, antiquarian, and scientist. British Zoology, 4 vols., 1765-burg, Pa.; under Lutheran control. It has 15 instructors and 77; Tours in Scotland, 3 vols., 1771-75; Tours in Wales, 1778-81; Arctic Zoology, 1785-87; Literary Life, 1793. Pennatulidæ. Sea-feathers or Sea-pens. Family of alcyonarian Polyps, aggregated in colonies, supported on a common stem, and having a horny, flexible skeleton. Renilla belongs here; it, however, has no axis. It is a pinkish, heartshaped disk with a short fleshy stem; the upper surface is covered by the white polyps, among which a certain amount of differentiation of structure and function obtains. Pennell, MRS. ELIZABETH ROBINS, b. 1855. American author and traveler. With her husband, JOSEPH PENNEL, the artist, she has written much descriptive matter. Pennine Alps. See ALPS. Penninerved. Pinnately veined leaves. Pennington, WILLIAM SANFORD, 1757-1826. Justice N. J. Pennsylvania. One of the e. States; rudely rectangular ab. 250 students, including the preparatory department. Pennsylvania State College. At State College, Pa.; offers 12 full and 8 short courses, mainly in the applied sciences. began as Farmers' High School 1859: named Agricultural College 1862, and State Coll. 1874. It is organized in 7 schools, and There are 52 instructors. General library, 10,500 vols., with special libraries in the departments. Penny. English silver coin, first struck ab.700. Its value declined till ab. 1560, and has since been shilling. Copper Penny of William I. half pence and farthings have been minted from 1672, pennies Herb of the Min Penny Postage. See POST-OFFICE. Mentha pulegium. Pennyroyal. Pennyroyal, AMERICAN. Low odorous herbs of the genu Hedeoma, of the Mint family, natives of America. The com family, native of Europe, cultivated for its pungent volatile oil mon e. species is H. pulegioides, and has nearly the taste an odor of the true Pennyroyal. Mentha canadensis has simila properties and is also called Pennyroyal. These are used as 1152 PENNY WEDDINGS-PENUMBRA Penny Weddings. Seventeenth century practice in Scotland. The invited guests contributed a small amount of money, seldom more than a shilling, to pay the general expenses of the wedding. It was denounced 1645 by an Act of the General Assembly. Pennyweight. In Troy weight, 24 grains. See WEIGHTS and MEASURES. Low marsh herbs of the genus Penobscot. Chief river of Me. It heads in the w. part of the State, flows e. and s.e., and then s. to P. Bay. It is navigable to Bangor. Length ab. 300 m., drainage area 8,934 sq. m., discharge 2,438 cu. ft. per second. Penology. See PRISON DISCIPLINE. Penry, JOHN (AP HENRY), 1559-1593. Welsh Puritan, unjustly executed. Pensacola. City of Escambia co., Fla., on P. Bay. It has a good harbor and considerable commerce. It was an old Spanish settlement, held for a time by the British, taken by Jackson 1814, and annexed with Fla. 1819. The Navy-yard near by was seized by Confederates Jan. 1861, but regained 1862. Pop., 1890, 11,750. Penshurst. Town in Kent, England, at the confluence of the Eden and the Tun, 44 m. w.s. w. of Tunbridge. It is noted for its old homes. P. Palace is the birthplace of Sir Philip Sydney 1554. Pop. 2,000. Pension. Sum paid from time to time by government, or a former employer, in consideration of past services. June 30, 1896, there were 970,678 names on the pension rolls of U. S.: War of 1812, 7 survivors, 3,287 widows; Mexican War, survivors 11,800, widows 8,017; Indian Wars, survivors 2,718, widows 4,237; War for the Union, 1861-65, invalids 749,530, widows, etc., 191,082. The total disbursements for the year ending June 30, 1896, were $139,280,075; from 1861-96, $1,997,515,154.72. The amount paid for pensions by Great Britain annually for army, navy and civil lists is ab. £7,500,000. Pensionary, GRAND. Sec. of Holland till 1795. His duties were largely financial and diplomatic. Barneveldt made the post eminent. Pentacarpellary. Ovary of five carpels. Pentacle. Five-pointed figure used as a symbol of mystery, perfection, or of the universe by Gnostics, Neoplatonists, and Pythagoreans. In the Middle Ages it was used to keep off evil spirits and witches. Pentacrinites. Group of Crinoids with pentangular stems. Pentacrinus. Most common of living species of CRINOIDS (q.v.); stone-lilies. Pentactine. Sponge spicule, produced from a hexactine by suppression of one ray. Pentadelphous. Flowers whose stamens are united into Pentads. In Chemistry, elements having a valence of V. Pentagynia. Order of plants which have five pistils. (Elateridae), Lamellicornia, Palpicornia, Swimming-beetles Pentameron. Fifty Neapolitan stories by G. Basile 1637. Pentamerous. Having five similar parts; e.g.. arms of a Starfish, and joints in the tarsus of certain beetles.-In Botany, flowers constructed on the plan of five members of each circle of parts, or the quinary plan. Pentameter. Verse of five feet; abridged hexameter, common in Greek, Latin, and modern poetry. Pentamethyl Pararosaniline. See METHYL VIOLET. Pentandrous. Flowers with five stamens. Pentane. C,H,,. Amyl hydride; known in three forms; which are liquids boiling 9°-37° C.; present in crude petroleum, and a considerable constituent of petroleum ether; used in standard burners to furnish a standard of light. Pentapetalous. Corolla of five petals. Calyx or corolla composed of five leaves Pentasepalous. Calyx composed of five sepals, as in the Pentastichous. Five-ranked, as the arrangement of the alternate leaves in the Apple, the scales of a Larch cone, and numerous other plants. Pentastomida. See LINGUATULIDA. Pentateuch. "Five books of Moses," first of O. T. Pentathionic Acid. H,S,O,. Made by the action of hydrogen sulphide upon a solution of sulphur dioxide in water. Pentathlon. Five exercises of running, leaping, wrestling, throwing the discus, and throwing the spear, popular in ancient Greece. Pentecost. In Israel, second of the three great feasts, celebrated fifty days after the Passover, commemorating the harvest.-In the Christian Church, day of the Descent of the Spirit. Penthesilea. Queen of Amazons; ally of Priam; slain by Pentheus. King of Thebes; driven mad by Bacchus and torn in pieces by his mother and aunts in a Bacchic frenzy. Pentland Firth. Between Scotland and the Orkneys, connecting North Sea and Atlantic. Pentland Hills. S. w. of Edinburgh: 16 m. long. Greatest altitude 1,898 ft. Here a body of Covenanters was defeated Nov. 28, 1666. Pentonville. District of London, containing a model prison, erected 1840-42. Pentremites. See BLASTOIDEA. Pentyl Alcohols. C,H,,OH. Seven compounds of this formula are known. Only two are of importance, the AMYL ALCOHOLS (q.v.). Penumbra. One of the results of the rectilinear propagation of radiation is the production of shadows cast by opaque objects. If, e.g., a disk be held opposite a candle flame, and straight lines be drawn from the flame tangent to the edge of the disk, the conical space behind the disk which receives no light is called the shadow. If the source of light be a point the edges of a plane section of the shadow are sharp. If i have an appreciable surface, the edges of the shadow shade of gradually. This surrounding region, through which the darl portion or the umbra shades off gradually, is the penumbra. |