Sibyl that the verses preserved at Rome were ascribed, the similarity of name may have led to the creation of a Cumaean Sibyl. This must however have taken place before the sixth century of Rome; for Naevius, according to Varro (ut sup.), in his poem on the Punic War, made Aeneas consult her; in which, as is well known, he was imitated by Virgil. EXCURSUS V. PECULIARITIES OF VIRGIL'S STYLE. Eliadum palmas Epiros equarum ? —Geor. i. 59. In the Life of Virgil we have observed that in the Georgics he adopted some peculiarities of style. We do not mean to say that these were entire novelties; but though they may be found in preceding Greek or Latin poets, they are so much more numerous in the Georgics, that they give a peculiar character to that poem. The first which we will notice is that of which the examples are most numerous, namely,―the use of que for ve, atque for aut, etc., i. e. the copulative for the disjunctive. This practice, which is unknown to modern languages, prevailed more or less in the Hebrew, the Greek, and the Latin. In the first, though Gesenius asserts the contrary, the copulative, ve, is frequently disjunctive, at least must be so rendered in translation; for though ingenuity may succeed in some cases in making it out to be still copulative, in others such efforts are fruitless. Such for example is, Either (ve) he is talking, or (ve) he is pursuing, or (ve) he is in a journey, 1 Kings, xviii. 27. In Homer we have observed the two following instances : ἤτοι ὁ μὲν πρώτῃσι καὶ ὑστατίῃσι βόεσσιν πρίν γ ̓ ὅτ ̓ ἂν ἑνδεκάτη τε δυωδεκάτη τε γένηται. -Od. ii. 374. The most usual way in which the copulative thus became disjunctive was when it was mixed up, as we may term it, with disjunctives. Examples of this may be seen in Apoll. Rh. iii. 1240-4. Catull. xi. 5-8. Hor. C. iii. 1, 42-44; 4, 53-56. Epod. 16, 3-8. In the following verses of Lucretius the copulative may be regarded as disjunctive: Et veluti manus atque oculus, naresve seorsum, Secreta ab nobis, nequeunt sentire neque esse, iii. 550. Aut PECULIARITIES OF VIRGIL'S STYLE. 337 subiti perimunt imbres gelidaeque pruinae, Flabraque ventorum vio. lento turbine vexant, v. 217. So also in Catullus: Quare quicquid habes boni malique Dic nobis, vi. 15. See also Hor. C. iii. 1, 20, 23, 30. Bentley, though, as it would appear, he did not recognise this principle in the Latin language, saw so clearly that in some cases que was disjunctive, that he would without hesitation substitute ve for it: see his notes on Hor. Carm. iii. 1, 43; Epod. 16, 6; Lucan, i. 252; ii. 199. The following are the places in which, in our opinion, Virgil uses the copulative disjunctively: Buc. i. 66. Geor. i. 75, 120, 173, 371, 442, 485; ii. 84, 87, 102, 121, 137, 139, 242, 276, 312, 351, 421, 436, 450, 464, 496, 498, 502, 511; iii. 121, 122, 141, 142, 175, 213, 253, 254, 278, 399, 405, 407, 466; iv. 10, 18, 19, 24, 124, 210, 244, 268, 270, 407, 408. Aen. ii. 37; v. 595; vii. 675; viii. 88; x. 320. In some of these places the copulative may be rendered by and, but we believe that in all of them or will best give the sense of the poet. We may observe that this use of the copulative is almost peculiar to the Georgics. 'In the Georgics also the copulative is sometimes omitted before the last member of the sentence, as in i. 102; ii. 6. We also find an instance in Ec. iv. 45. But the most remarkable feature perhaps of Virgil's poetry is his frequent use of the figure called Hypallage, by which words are put in a construction contrary to their natural sense: as in Si tantum notas odor attulit auras, Geor. iii. 251; Dare classibus Austros, Aen. iii. 61. How any one can, like Heyne, admire such slights of language is, we confess, a matter of wonder to us. Lucretius and Horace both use this figure occasionally, but with much more moderation than Virgil, merely joining an adjective with a substantive, to which in strictness it does not belong. Thus the former has impia rationis elementa, i. 82; anhela sitis de corpore nostro abluitur, iv. 876; e salso momine ponti, vi. 474; nigra virum percocto secla calore, vi. 1108. The latter has Regina dementes ruinas parabat. C. i. 37,7; Nec purpurarum sidere clarior Delenit usus, iii. 1, 42; iratos regum apices, 21, 19; to which we may perhaps add Premant Calena falce vitem, i. 31, 9. The hypallage occurs in the following places in Virgil: Ec. x. 55. Geor. i. 59, 211, 258, 266, 296, 318, 360; ii. 101, 251, 260, 497; iii. 490; iv. 119, 238, 335, 415. Aen. i. 361; ii. 387, 508; iii. 61, 362; iv. 385, 506; v. 458, 480, 589; viii. 73, 542, 654; ix. 455; x. 660; xi. 18, 212; xii. 187, 219, 621, 739, 859. Virgil also made frequent use of the figure named Catachresis. In the Georgics he continually employs arena instead of terra, and fluvius, fons, ros and imber for aqua. EXCURSUS VI. CORVUS AND CORNIX. .E pastu decedens agmine magno Corvorum increpuit densis exercitus alis.—Geor. i. 381. Ornithologists will, we believe, allow that we are right in rendering corvus, here and in v. 410, by rook, and cornix (v. 308) by raven or crow. Yet, strange as it may seem, it is only ourselves and Hoblyn that thus employ these terms. Martyn, Voss, and all the other commentators and translators of the Georgics, make corvus raven and cornix crow. In all dictionaries it is the same; so also in all the languages derived from the Latin. Corvo It., cuervo Sp., corbeau Fr., is raven; cornacchia It., corneja Sp., corneille Fr., is rook or crow. We trust that we shall be able to prove that this is all incorrect. The Latin corvus is the Greek kópaέ, our crow, including under that name the rook (C. frugilegus L.), the carrion-crow (C. corona L.), the Royston crow (C. cornix L.), and, as we shall have some reason to suppose, the jackdaw (C. monedula L.). The Latin cornix is the Greek kopóvŋ, which, if it is not, as perhaps is the case, to be restricted to the raven (C. corax L.), at least includes him; otherwise he will be without a name in the Greek and Latin languages. Corvus, the rook, occurs in these places in Virgil, and in the corresponding places in Aratus; for it is only the rooks that fly in troops and have their nests all in the same place in the trees. The daws no doubt do the former, but not the latter. Virgil, however, may have included in his corvi both the Kópakes and the Koλool of Aratus. When Persius (S. iii. 61) says An passim sequeris corvos testaque lutoque Securus quo pes ferat atque ex tempore vivis? it is plain to every one that it must be the rooks he means, as it is these birds that children thus pursue. In all other places of the classics corvus is, we believe, the carrion crow. Thus when Horace (Ep. i, 16, 46) says, Non pasces in cruce corvos, it can be only this crow he means, for the rook is not carnivorous. It is also probably this crow of which he speaks elsewhere (C. iii. 27, 11. S. i. 8, 38; ii. 5, 56). In the Dat veniam corvis, vexat censura columbas of Juvenal (ii. 63) it is probably the crows that are meant; though it may be the rooks, and the sense of the passage be: the rooks are let to feed on the corn, while the pigeons are driven away.' In the Atque ideo postquam ad Cimbros stragemque volabant of the same poet (viii. 252) they are beyond doubt the carrion-crows. In all the places in Aristotle and Ælian where the kópaέ is mentioned it seems to be this crow. To this also belong the ordinary expressions ἐς κόρακας, ἄπαγ ̓, βάλλ ̓ ἐς κόρακας, meaning, to leave the body unburied. Pliny (x. 43) tells a story of a corvus thus :-" Tiberio Principe ex fetu supra Castorum aedem genito pullus (sc. corvinus) in oppositam sutrinam devolavit, etiam religione commendatus officinae domino. Is mature sermoni assuefactus, omnibus matutinis evolans in Rostra, forum versus, Tiberium, dein Germanicum et Drusum Caesares nominatim, mox transeuntem populum Rom. salutabat, postea ad tabernam remeans, plurium annorum assiduo officio mirus." Now this wonderful corvus, we have no doubt, was a monedula, or jackdaw, for of the crow-kind there are only the daw, the raven, and the magpie, that can be taught to speak, and these two last never build in towns or on houses. raven. We come now to the cornix or кopóŋ, and we confess that we cannot show as satisfactorily that it is, as that the corvus is not, the In fact nearly all the places in which it is mentioned will apply as well to the carrion-crow. We can, however, offer some proofs. Thus Aristotle constantly distinguishes between the kopóvn and the kópaέ, though he makes them both carnivorous. Of the former he says, Taμþáɣov yáp ẻσti (H. A. viii. 3: see on Geor. i. 389); and of the latter he tells us (ix. 31) that when the Medes were slain in Pharsalus, the Kópakes flocked thither in such numbers that Attica and the Peloponnese were quite deserted by them. If then the kopávŋ is not the Royston crow, it must be the raven. What Ælian tells (De N. A. iii. 9) of the conjugal fidelity of the κopôvaι, also applies best to the ravens. Pliny further tells us that the cornix breaks the shells of walnuts by letting them fall from a height on stones or tiles; but as modern naturalists tell the same thing of the carrion crow in the matter of shell-fish, we can make no use of this case. We therefore cannot venture to assert that the cornix is the raven and the raven alone. EXCURSUS VII. ABSTRACT FOR CONCRETE. Praemiaque ingeniis pagos et compita circum This we believe to be an instance of a practice in which the Latin language indulged more than any other, that of using abstract for concrete nouns, or acts for agents. The Greek, it is true, did the same, but only, we believe, in the higher poetry; while the Latin used these terms in the prose of history and the language of common life. The Euphuism of England, and the Précieux of France, in the 17th century, seem to have been derived from this principle of the Latin language. Drakenborch (on Liv. iii. 15, and on Sil. viii. 33; xv. 748; xvi. 504) has given some instances of this practice, as also has Zumpt (§ 675), and the following list may not prove unacceptable to scholars : Servitium and opera, for servus and operarius, are of common occurrence. So also is auxilia. Plautus and Terence use scelus and salus frequently, and the latter carcer (Ph. ii. 3, 26). Sallust uses flagitia and facinora (Cat. 14); Livy, mors (ii. 7; Cf. Cic. Mil. 32); Tacitus, crimina (Ann. i. 55), amicitia (ii. 77); Seneca, custodia (Ep. s. 6); Ovid, bellum (Met. xii. 25; Cf. Flor. ii. 2, 17; Plin. Pan. 12), damnum, (ib. 16), furtum (Fast. iii. 846), cura (Her. i. 104); Juvenal, vitia (ii. 34), potestas (ix. 100; x. 100), officia (x. 45), spectacula (viii. 205), honor (i. 110,117); Catullus, stupor (xvii. 21); Propertius, amor (ii. 19, 57), conjugium (iii. 11, 20); Horace, artes (Ep. ii. 1, 13), ingenium (ib. 2, 81), culpas (C. iii. 11, 29). EXCURSUS VIII. Quod surgente die, etc.-Geor. iii. 400. Fea has, we think, in a very simple and elegant manner removed the difficulty from this passage, by merely a change of punctuation. He reads it thus : |