9. On the President's patronage, consult Bryce's " American Commonwealth," abridged edition, pp. 44–48.

10. The Civil Service commission and its work are described in Hart's "Actual Government,” § 134.

II. For what reasons is the double system of appointment (by President and Senate) objectionable?

12. Give the history of the controversy over the Tenure of Office Act of 1867.

13. What President vetoed the most bills? Which one had the largest number of important ones passed over his veto ?

14. What Secretaries of State or of the Treasury have become President? (Newspaper Almanacs.)

15. What is the relation of the President to his Cabinet? (Harrison, "This Country of Ours," pp. 104-107.)

16. What work does the Treasury Department perform? (Scribner's Magazine, XXXIII (1903), pp. 400-410.)

17. "The Navy Department," Scribner's Magazine, XXXIII (1903), pp. 567-577, Outlook, LXXIII (1903), pp. 323-337.

18. "The Department of the Interior," Harrison, “This Country of Ours," pp. 268-288.

19. How is navigation along our coasts protected? (Cosmopolitan, XXV (1898), pp. 358–365.)

20. How was the twelfth census taken? (Munsey's Magazine, XXIII (1900), pp. 387–394.)

21. Fill out the following table : —

MEMBERS OF THE CABINET

OFFICE

Sec. of State

Sec. of Treasury

Sec. of War

Postmaster-General

Sec. of Navy
Sec. of Interior
Attorney-General

Sec. of Agriculture
Sec. of Commerce

YEAR
APPOINTED

NAME OF PRESENT INCUMBENT

Jurisdiction

of the na

tional courts.

Work of in-
terpreting
the Constitu-

tion.

Through the

trial of cases

only.

CHAPTER XVI

THE NATIONAL COURTS

186. The Work of the Judicial Department. - Our national courts have jurisdiction of all cases arising under the Constitution of the United States, the national laws, or the treaties. For this reason the Supreme Court is the final interpreter of the Constitution of the United States; that is, it decides what the meaning of any clause or section may be. When we realize that the national government derives its authority from the people through the Constitution and the Constitution alone, we can see what an important duty is left to that department of the government which may decide what powers have been given to the national government and what powers withheld from it. By interpreting the Constitution strictly many powers may be denied to Congress which that body would be permitted to use if the Constitution is interpreted liberally. The Court has usually been willing that Congress should exercise all the powers that the Constitution could reasonably be thought to grant, and has therefore aided in extending the authority of the national government.

187. How the Courts interpret the Constitution. The courts do not decide the meaning of a section

of the Constitution by offering opinions at any time,
but interpret the Constitution solely in connection
with their regular work as courts.
When a person
feels that he is injured in the execution of a law, his
case is brought before a court for trial, and if the
meaning of any clause of the Constitution is in-
volved, the court explains the meaning of the clause
when it gives its decision in the case. It really
decides whether laws passed by Congress are con-
stitutional or not. If, in its opinion, Congress has
a right to pass the law with which the case is con-
cerned, the law is declared constitutional. If Con-
gress has exceeded its powers, the law is set aside
as null and void. The Supreme Court, to which
cases involving the Constitution are appealed, is thus
enabled on the one hand to extend the power of
Congress within reasonable limits, and to prevent
that body from usurping the functions of the other
departments of the national government and of the

states.

188. National Courts and Judges.

According to Four series

the Constitution there shall be one Supreme Court and as many inferior courts as Congress may establish. At present there are four series of courts: the Supreme Court, nine Circuit Courts of Appeals, nine Circuit Courts, and eighty-three District Courts. The judges of all these courts are appointed for good behavior by the President with the consent of the Senate. They may be removed only on impeachment in the House of Representatives and conviction by two thirds of the senators. Those

of courts.

Selection

and removal of judges.

Salaries of judges.

Cases tried

in national courts.

full pay.

who have served at least ten years are permitted to retire at the age of seventy, and continue to draw Because of the honor connected with the judgeships, our national judges have been men of exceptional ability, and our Supreme Court especially has enjoyed a world-wide reputation for wisdom and impartiality.

For their services these judges receive comparatively small salaries which may be increased but not diminished during their term of office. By a bill approved in February, 1903, the salary of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is fixed at $13,000 per year, that of the associate justices at $12,500, of the circuit judges at $7000, and of the district judges at $6000 each.

189. Jurisdiction of the National Courts. - The Constitution provides for the different kinds of cases that may be tried in United States courts. "The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more states, between citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects."