ber, box-elder, buckeye, etc. The native fruits were the cranberry, which grew in marshes, huckleberry, blackberry, pawpaw, persimmon, plum, wild grapes, and cherries, etc. Chestnuts, black walnuts, hickory nuts and butternuts were abundant, while beechnuts and acerns supplied the food upon which hogs fattened.

Wild Animals were numerous. Deer supplied many of the early settlers with meat. Bears, wolves, foxes, raccoons, woodchucks, opossums, skunks and squirrels were, some of them, too common. Wild turkeys, geese and ducks, partridges, quails and pigeons were abundant. Eagles and turkey-buzzards were frequent visitors Owls and hawks were more common and the latter very troublesome among the farmers' chickens.

Hunting was one of the active employments of the early settlers, either for the purpose of obtaining supplies of venison and other game, or for the destruction of troublesome animals, a bounty from county treasuries being paid for wolf scalps. Occasionally drives or general hunts were organized. Hunters surrounded a township or other tract and moved in line toward some designated point. Deer and other animals were surrounded; many deer were sometimes killed and numbers of more mischievous animals were occasionally destroyed. In the afternoon of the 1st of May, 1830, the writer, with two companions, walked from Cleveland some eighteen miles on the State road leading westward. The place of destination was not reached until late in the evening, when conversation had become difficult from the incessant howling of wolves. It is not a little remarkable that a gray wolf should have been killed in the west part of Cuyahoga county on the 30th of April of the present year. For many years raccoons were specially troublesome in the ripening corn, and consequently the necessity of cooning was everywhere recognized. Active boys, with dogs, would visit the cornfields at night when the green corn attracted the raccoons, which were sometimes caught in the field, but oftener by cutting trees in the vicinity upon which they had taken refuge.

Fishing. In the spring fishing was a common resource for the settlers, especially in the vicinity of Lake Erie. When the fish started up the rivers at spawning time various devices were employed to capture them. Seines were most successful, but a simpler method was more common. The fisherman at night, with a lighted torch made of hickory bark in one hand and a fish-spear in the other, waded knee-deep or more into the stream; then, as fish attracted by the light came near, they were struck with the spear and thrown out of the water or otherwise secured. Pike, pickerel, catfish, sturgeon, muscalunge and mullet, as many as the fisherman could carry home, were sometimes caught. Some were used fresh, but more were salted and kept for future supply.

Work. In the early settlement of the State a formidable amount of work confronted the pioneer-building of houses and barns, of schools and meetinghouses, the making of roads, bridging of streams, clearing and fencing the land. Then came planting or sowing, cultivation and harvesting of crops and the constant care of his animals. The first buildings were of logs a foot or more in▾ diameter. These were cut of suitable length and brought together, then neighbors were invited to the raising. One axeman went to each of the four corners to notch and fit the logs as others rolled them up. In some cases larger logs split in halves were used. These could be placed with the split sides inward so as to make a tolerably smooth and perpendicular wall. The log school-houses and meeting-houses were built in the same manner, though, as in the case of dwellinghouses, the logs were sometimes squared before being put up. The structure was then called a block-house. Log-houses were covered with long split oak shingles held in place by small logs or poles so that no nails were required. Floors and doors were made from logs split into flat pieces and hewn smooth. When sawmills had been introduced and lumber could be obtained for door-frames, doors, window-frames, etc., houses could be much more neatly finished. After lumber became plentiful frame buildings superseded those of logs. More recently brick and stone have come into general use.

Road-making was at first very simple. A surveyor, or some other person sup posed to know the proposed route, blazed the trees in the line; this was sufficient to mark the course, then the track of sufficient width was underbrushed, and the

dead logs cut, and rolled or drawn aside. When the amount of travel made it necessary the timber from the whole breadth of the route was cut and removed. Upon low, wet places logways were made by placing logs of equal size closely together, and sometimes a light covering of earth was placed over the logs so that vehicles could pass over smoothly. Small bridges, where timbers of extra length were not required, were easily made, but across streams not passable by an easily made bridge or ford ferries were established. If a person or team needed to cross a stream, the ferryman with his boat took them over; if they came to the river from the side opposite to that on which the ferryman lived, they found near the road a tin horn tied to a tree; this they blew, until the ferryman brought over the boat.

Clearing. For clearing away the forest, the chopping was usually done in the winter months. First the underbrush was cut and piled, the logs already down were cut into lengths, which permitted them to be drawn together; occasionally these dead logs were burned into pieces by small fires kept up until the logs were burned through. The timber suitable for rails was next cut down and into 'suitable lengths, and drawn to the lines where fences were to be built; the balance of the timber was then cut down, and chopped into convenient lengths for logging. When the brushwood and timber upon a tract was all cut it was left through the summer, and called a summer-fallow, the timber in the meantime becoming dry. In the fall the brush-heaps were burned, then the logs were drawn together by oxen, and rolled into log-heaps and burned. Next the railcuts were split into rails, and the worm-fence built, after which came the wheatsowing. In some sections, or upon some farms, the timber was not all cut down, many of the larger trees being notched around or girdled, so that they died. This process of deadening the large trees was a great saving of labor in the first instance; but as dead limbs and trees were liable to fall, and perhaps do mischief, it was not generally approved.

Ashes-Sugar. The first valuable product which the settler obtained from his land was the ashes which remained after the timber was burnt. These were carefully gathered and leached: the lye was then boiled into black salts, which were marketable at the country stores. In many towns asheries were established, which bought the ashes or black salts, and converted them into pot- or pearl-ash for Eastern markets. Another product of the forest also required the farmers' attention with the first warm days of spring the sap of the maple-trees was started. The hard maples were tapped, and in some localities even the soft maples; the sap was collected in troughs made by the axe, and boiled to the consistency of syrup, or carried a step further, until crystallization was secured. Maple-sugar making saved the early settlers from what would have involved a large expenditure.

Teams. The team-work necessary in clearing, and for farm-work in the new country, was chiefly done by oxen. The employment of oxen appeared to secure many advantages; the first cost was less than for horses, oxen are more easily kept, the yoke with which they were worked could be made by any handy farmer, and was therefore much less expensive than the harness necessary for horses. The log-chains used with oxen were well adapted for work among timber, and when broken could easily be mended by the country blacksmith; and if any accident befell the ox, and he became unfit for work, this probably did not prevent his being fattened and turned into beef. In general, steers were easily trained. Sometimes they were worked with those already broken, but, whatever plan was adopted, they soon learned to make themselves useful. Before the introduction of improved breeds of cattle all working oxen were of what was called native stock; after the introduction of Devons into some parts of the State, these were found to be greatly superior for work. In addition to their uniform beautiful red color and handsome horns, the Devons proved more active and more easily taught than other breeds. Since the introduction of the mower, reaper, and other forms of farm machinery, the quicker-stepping horse has been found more desirable for team work, not only upon the road but also on the farm.

Wheat. After clearing and fencing, wheat was sown broadcast among the stumps with a rude harrow called a drag; it was scratched under the surface. For many years the wheat when ripe was cut with a sickle; in some parts of the

State the grain-cradle was introduced as early as 1830, or perhaps earlier, and this gradually superseded the older implement. After being cut, the wheat was allowed to stand some days in shock, in order to dry before it was hauled to the barn or stack. It was usually thrashed with the flail, though the more expeditious method of treading out the grain by horses was sometimes employed. After thrashing the wheat was separated from the chaff by throwing them up before the wind; or a fan, with a revolving frame, to which pieces of canvas were attached, was used to raise the wind; finally, the fanning-mill came into use some years before the horse-power thrashing-machine. We may now be thankful for more expeditious methods, for the United States census for 1880 reports the wheat crop of Ohio at 49,790,475 bushels; only the State of Illinois produced

more.

Grass. In the spring, as early as April, or perhaps earlier, it was customary to sow grass-seed and clover among the growing wheat. At the time of harvest there was but little grass to be seen, but when no longer shaded it made rapid growth, and a pasture or meadow was soon established. For many years the grass crop was cut by the scythe, and tedded, or spread from the swath with a fork. When dry, it was gathered together with a hand-rake, and hauled to the barn or stack upon a cart drawn by oxen. Mowing with a scythe required skill as well as strength, and hence to be a good mower was an object of ambition among young farmers. It must nowadays appear strange to good old mowers, who still remain among us, to see a half-grown boy or a sprightly girl jump upon a mowing-machine, and with a pair of horses cut as much grass in an hour as the best mower could aforetime cut in a whole day.

Corn.-On land newly cleared and fenced early in May corn planting commenced. A bag to hold the seed-corn was suspended by tape or string around the waist of the planter. The corn was usually planted dry, though sometimes it was soaked to insure more speedy germination. The implement used in planting was a heavy, sharp hoe; this would raise the rooty or leafy soil, and allow the corn to be thrown under: what had been raised could then be pressed down with the back of the hoe or with the foot; or an old axe was used to make a hole, into which the corn was dropped. When the corn was a few inches high the weeds were cleared away with the hoe, and the soil stirred about the hill. On lands that had been cleared a few years and the roots decayed, the plow, drawn by oxen, was used between the rows of growing corn, the oxen wearing baskets on their muzzles to prevent them from cropping off the corn; the cultivator had not then made its appearance. The corn, when ripe, was husked standing, or it was cut and shocked, and the husking left until the farmer had leisure. If one became sick, and fell behind in his work, the neighbors would give him the benefit of a husking-bee; ten or a dozen, or possibly twenty of them, would come together, and give a half-day's, or perhaps a whole day's work. Yellow dent or gourd-seed corn was preferred for feeding, but in the northern part of the State white-flint corn was raised for many years, because it found such ready market at higher price with the Hudson's Bay Fur Company, by whom it was hulled, and supplied to their trappers. The corn crop of Ohio has largely increased during the century. The United States census for 1880 reports the corn crop of the State at 119,940,000, or within a fraction of one hundred and twenty millions of bushels.

Farm Implements. For many years after tillage commenced in Ohio the plow with wooden mould-board was in use, the landside, share and point being of iron and steel. The cast-iron plow of Jethro Wood appeared about 1820, but did not immediately come into general use. The next improvement consisted in chilling and hardening the cutting parts. Then plows of well-tempered steel came into use, and finally the sulky plow, on which the plowman rides comfortably while the work is done. The pioneer harrow was made from the crotch of a tree. It usually had four teeth on each side and one in front. This was called a drag. It was a very convenient implement for covering grain among stumps and roots. After a time the double Scotch harrow and then the Geddes Harrow came into Finally the Acme was reached. The wheat drill for seeding had long been used in other countries and was introduced into Ohio as soon as the stumps and roots were out of the way. At the State Fair, held in Cleveland in 1852, grain

use.

drills, corn planters, broadcast wheat sowers, corn shellers for horse and hand power, corn and cob crushers and one and two-horse cultivators were on exhibition. The cultivator for use among corn and the revolving horse-rake were patented in 1824, McCormick's reaper in 1831 and Hussey's mower in 1833. At a State trial for reapers and mowers, held in Springfield in 1852, twelve different reapers and mowers competed for the prize. Later came the reaper and binder, the hay loader and stacker and the steam thrasher and cleaner. These implements have so changed the character of harvest work as to make it possible to increase almost indefinitely the amount of cereals raised. Flax was at one time an important crop in Ohio. It was sown, cleaned, pulled, rotted, broken, swingled, hatcheled, spun and woven in the home and made into linen for the household and into summer garments for men and boys. In 1869 Ohio produced nearly 80,000,000 pounds of flax fibre and had ninety flax mills in operation. In 1870 the tariff on gunny cloth grown in the East Indies was removed and as a result every flax mill in Ohio was stopped and the amount of flax fibre reduced in 1886 to less than 2,000,000 pounds.

Improvement of Stock-In 1834 the Ohio Importing Company was organized in Ross county by Mr. Felix Renick and others. Agents of this company visited England and brought to Ohio many first-class Shorthorns. Previous to this Mr. Patton had brought into the State the descendants of cattle of a previous importation made into Maryland. Since that time many importations have been made. Devons, Shorthorns, Herefords, Ayreshires, Red Polled, Alderneys, Jerseys, Guernseys, Polled Angus and Holsteins are now all seen at the State and County Fairs. For a time in the early history of the State there existed a serious hindrance to the improvement of Ohio's cattle in the prevalence of a fatal disease, known as bloody murrain. Gradually this has become less and less troublesome, untii at the present time it is scarcely known.

Dairying. For many years dairying in Ohio has been one of the leading industries. In the winter of 1851-2 the Ohio Dairymen's Association was formed. In 1861 the statistics of cheese production were first collected. In 1886 the amount of factory cheese made in the State exceeded 16,500,000 pounds, and that of farm dairies was nearly 3,000,000 pounds. The change in the style and purpose of Ohio cattle will be observed. At first those were preferred that were best adapted for labor, then those that were specially fitted for beef, and more recently tnose which are best suited for the dairy.

Sheep had early been brought to this country and raised both for wool and mutton. The first importation of Spanish Merinoes into the United States was made by General Humphreys near the beginning of the present century. Some descendants of that importation were brought to Ohio by Mr. Atwood. Messrs. Wells and Dickinson also brought valuable sheep to the State. Merinoes, Saxons, Silesians, French Merinoes, and the long-wooled and mutton sheep of England, Lincolns, Coteswolds and Leicesters, also Sussex, Hampshire and Shropshire Downs have all been exhibited at State Fairs. Sheep in Ohio were more numerous a few years since, but the change made in the tariff upon foreign wools in 1883 has considerably reduced their number.

Swine.-A great change has been made in the swine of the State. At first the hog that could make a good living upon what fell from the trees of the forest and could most successfully escape from bears and wolves, in accordance with the law of the "survival of the fittest," was the most likely to increase. Under the influences to which swine were subjected for the first quarter or half a century it is not surprising that the common hog of Ohio was known as a "rail splitter." In the latter part of the century Berkshires, Chester Whites, Irish Graziers, Chinas, Neapolitans, Essexs and Suffolks have been introduced, until to-day what is sometimes called the Butler county hog, or Poland China, may be said to combine the excellencies of all.

Horses, though less used than formerly for distant travel, are coming more and more into use on the farm. In the early part of the century the only recognized way of improving the quality of this serviceable animal was by the importation and use of thoroughbred stallions. Such animals were introduced into nearly every county of the State and many beautiful horses for light draft was the result. At State Fairs the classification has usually been: Thoroughbreds, Road

sters, of which class Morgans were a conspicuous example, General Purpose and Draft Horses. This was thought more convenient than classification by breeds, such as Clydesdale, Cleveland Bay, Norman, Percheron, etc., all of which, however, are seen at our fairs.

Fruit. From several quarters the fruits of Ohio have been improved. The first settlers at Marietta had among their number men interested in fruit culture. On the Western Reserve Dr. Kirtland early imported fine varieties of fruit from New Jersey. The improvements he himself made in cherries were of still greater importance. At Cincinnati Nicholas Longworth had established a vineyard upon Bald Hill as early as 1833, and succeeded in introducing fine varieties of grapes. Gradually it was seen that the climate of the southern shore of Lake Erie and the adjacent islands was better adapted to grape culture than portions of the State more inland. The important work accomplished for the improvement of the fruit of the Northwest by the gentlemen named and by Dr. John A. Warder, N. Ohmer, Geo. W. Campbell and their associates of the Ohio Pomological Society, which was organized in 1852, and of its legitimate successor, the State Horticultural Society, since 1867 cannot be estimated.

Transportation. For many years the principal means of communication between Ohio and the Eastern States was by pack-horses. As roads improved Pennsylvania wagons, drawn by four or six heavy horses, were seen. Such was the difficulty of travel that in 1806 Congress ordered the construction of a national road from Cumberland Gap to the Ohio river, and from thence to the western boundary of the State. This road was finished to the Ohio in 1825 and completed to the Indiana line in 1834. The first steamboat left Pittsburg for New Orleans in 1811. An event which greatly affected the prosperity of the Northwestern States was the opening of the Erie Canal through the State of New York in 1825. In 1824 wheat was sold in Ohio for thirty-five cents a bushel, and corn for ten cents. Soon after the completion of the Erie Canal the prices of these grains went up fifty per cent. In 1825 the Ohio Canal was begun and finished in 1830. Railroads were begun in Ohio in 1835 and the first completed in 1848. The influence of these improved facilities for transportation may be seen in the fact that in 1838 sixteen pounds of butter were required for the purchase of one pound of tea, now two pounds are adequate; then four pounds of butter would prepay one letter to the seaboard, now the same amount would pay the postage on forty letters. The price of farm produce advanced fifty per cent. on the completion of the canals. The railroads appear to have doubled the price of flour, trebled the price of pork and quadrupled the price of corn.

Underdraining has for some years past occupied the attention of Ohio farmers, but only for a few years has its importance become generally understood. It has, however, been practiced to a limited extent for a long period. In the summer of 1830 the writer of this paper advised and superintended the construction of drains upon the farm of a neighbor in Lorain county for the double purpose of making useful a piece of very wet land and to collect spring water and make it available for stock. A year later the writer, with similar objects in view, put in a drain upon land which he now owns, and the drain then made is running well at present. Horse-shoe tiles were at first made by hand, but before 1850 tile machines had come into use. In consequence of clearing off the forests and the surface drainage necessary for crops many of the smaller streams and springs have ceased to flow in the summer months. This has compelled many farmers to pump water from wells for the use of stock. Well water has an advantage over surface water in its more uniform temperature. To make the water of deep wells available for stock, pumping by wind-mills has become very common since about 1870, when the first self-adjusting wind-mill was exhibited at the Ohio State Fair.

Soiling and Ensilage are among comparatively modern improvements. The extent of the dairy interest in Ohio and the necessity of obtaining milk at all seasons to supply the needs of an increasing population had led to the practice of cutting succulent green crops to feed to animals in their stalls when the pasture is insufficient. Growing rye, oats, peas and vetches, clover, lucern, young corn, Hungarian and other millets have been employed. To secure more juicy fodder in winter a method of preserving these and other green crops has