teeming with sharpshooters. But, little by little, visions of this kind came into Brown's brain more and more as the years passed, until in the early fifties his plan was clear to him in its outlines, much as actually put into execution. The salient idea was that mountains had throughout history been the means of enabling a few brave souls, whether gladiators, or slaves, or free men, Swiss, Italians, or Spaniards, or Circassians, to defy and sometimes to defeat armies of their oppressors. Into the mountain fastnesses regular troops penetrated, it was thought, with difficulty, and the ranges themselves afforded an easy line of communication even through a wholly hostile country. Moreover, mountains were just the place to assemble bondmen and to give them arms with which to fight for liberty_For the project was now far different from that John Brown described to his brother in 1834: slavery, it appeared, was, after all, not to be undone by educating the negroes already freed, but by the sword of Gideon and a band as carefully chosen as was his. Gradually the practical shepherd felt his blood stirring within him, but not until after removal to Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1846, when he had the opportunity to come into closer knowledge of the militant Boston Abolitionists, is there written evidence of this. He had seen the Liberator in his father's home, for Owen Brown early became a subscriber to this and other vigorous anti-slavery journals. John Brown's children also remember to have received the Liberator in Ohio, when it was still a youthful publication," and later, in North Elba. The Tribune, too, as it attained fame under Greeley, was as welcome a visitor to this home as to so many thousands of others. Its approval of the doctrine of opposing slavery with Sharp's rifles commended it particularly in the Kansas days to John Brown, who was by nature unable to sympathize with the Garrisonian doctrine of non-resistance to force, although there are some who would believe Brown to have been a non-resistant as late as 1830. They cite in support of their contention a garbled anecdote, according to which he permitted himself to be cowhided without resisting his assailant's fury. 12 Brown's residence in Springfield gave him the opportunity not only to attend anti-slavery meetings, but also to meet many colored people; in the first written

evidence of his growing aggressiveness towards slavery there is reference to enlightenment at the hands of Abby Kelley Foster, Garrison "and other really benevolent persons. This curious production of Brown's bespeaks the influence upon him of Franklin's writings; throughout, it is an admonition to the negroes to avoid their besetting sins, an incentive to thrift, frugality and solidarity, and it is written as if from the pen of a black man, Sambo. Contributed in 1848 or 1849 to a little-known Abolition newspaper, The Ram's Horn, published and edited by colored men in New York, this essay denounces the negroes for their supineness in the face of wrong, instead of their "nobly resisting" brutal aggressions.†

But for all its denunciation of the negro's "tamely submitting to every species of indignity, contempt and wrong,' it cannot be maintained that this satirical article indicated that Brown had gone very far along the path toward an armed attack on slavery, although started in that direction. Nor does it appear from this that he had as yet reached the conclusion that the New England Abolitionists were to be shunned because they were all talk. In 1851, however, the policy of armed resistance becomes much more clearly developed; the man of war is now emerging from the chrysalis of peace. On January 15 of that year there was organized in Springfield a branch of the United States League of Gileadites the first and apparently the only one. It was Brown's idea; he chose the title, and it was his first effort to organize the colored people to defend themselves and advance their interests. It was a practical application of the teachings of Sambo, and was inspired by the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, which made legal in the North the rendition of negroes who had found their way to free States. The "Words of Advice" for the Gileadites, "as written and recommended by John Brown" and adopted as the principles of the new organization, begin with the motto "Union is Strength,"

"John Brown was strong for women's rights and women's suffrage. He always went to hear Lucretia Mott and Abby Kelley Foster, even though it cost him considerable effort to reach the place where they spoke." — Annie Brown Adams.

† See Appendix.

and declare in the first sentence that "Nothing so charms the American people as personal bravery."13(The object of the Gileadites was not, however, to attack slavery on its own territory, but to band the colored people together to resist slave-catchers and make impossible the returning to the South of a fugitive who had reached Northern soil Brown wrote:

"No jury can be found in the Northern States, that would convict a man for defending his rights to the last extremity. This is well understood by Southern Congressmen, who insisted that the right of trial by jury should not be granted to the fugitive. Colored people have more fast friends amongst the whites than they suppose.... Just think of the money expended by individuals in your behalf in the past twenty years! Think of the number who have been mobbed and imprisoned on your account. Have any of you seen the Branded Hand? Do you remember the names of Lovejoy and Torrey? Should one of your number be arrested, you must collect together as quickly as possible so as to outnumber your adversaries who are taking an active part against you. Let no able-bodied man appear on the ground unequipped, or with his weapons exposed to view; let that be understood beforehand. Your plans must be known only to yourself, and with the understanding that all traitors must die, wherever caught and proven to be guilty. 'Whosoever is fearful or afraid, let him return and depart early from Mount Gilead.' (Judges, VII chap., 3 verse; Deut. XX Chap. 8 verse.) Give all cowards an opportunity to show it on condition of holding their peace. Do not delay one moment after you are ready; you will lose all your resolution if you do. Let the first blow be the signal for all to engage; and when engaged do not do your work by halves; but make clean work with your enemies, and be sure you meddle not with any others . . . Your enemies will be slow to attack you after you have once done up the work nicely. . . .'

All this has the characteristic ring of John Brown the Kansas fighter, particularly the admonition to make "clean work with your enemies." Here is the stern Puritan parent, intolerant of childish fault, developed into a man urging not only shedding the blood of one's enemies, but the making of "clean work" of it, much as pirate captains advocated the walking of the plank as a sanitarily satisfactory way of disposing of one's captives. This advice, as will be seen later in this narrative, recurs frequently in the days when the Roundhead was in the field at work. Certainly, when engaged,

52

Nevolutionary like.

JOHN BROWN

he always lived up to his doctrine of going at once to close quarters with his enemy, after the manner of John Paul Jones. The transformation of the practical shepherd was thus coming on apace.

Characteristic, too, is Brown's suggestion in the "Words of Advice," that a lasso might be "applied to a slave-catcher for once with good effect." "Stand by one another, and by your friends, while a drop of blood remains; and be hanged, if you must, but tell no tales out of school," - this is another solemn admonition which smacks of the Spanish Main, yet accurately foreshadows his own conduct when overcome by his enemies. Original is the hint to the colored people to embroil their white friends in the event of trouble: "After effecting a rescue, if you are assailed, go into the houses of your most prominent and influential white friends with your wives, and that will effectually fasten upon them the suspicion of being connected with you, and will compel them to make a common cause with you, whether they would otherwise live up to their profession or not. This would leave them no choice in the matter." These "Words of Advice" were followed by an agreement and nine resolutions which practically restate the agreement. This was signed by forty-four colored men and women of Springfield. It is typical of other documents John Brown drew up on, to him, serious occasions, and is in his best style: 14

AGREEMENT

As citizens of the United States of America, trusting in a just and merciful God, whose spirit and all-powerful aid we humbly implore, we will ever be true to the flag of our beloved country, always acting under it. We, whose names are hereunto affixed, do constitute ourselves a branch of the United States League of Gileadites. We will provide ourselves at once with suitable implements, and will aid those who do not possess the means, if any such are disposed to join us. We invite every colored person whose heart is engaged for the performance of our business, whether male or female, old or young. The duty of the aged, infirm, and young members of the League shall be to give instant notice to all members in case of an attack upon any of our people. We agree to have no officers except a Treasurer and Secretary pro tem., until after some trial of courage and talent of able-bodied members shall

enable us to elect officers from those who shall have rendered the most important services. Nothing but wisdom and undaunted courage, efficiency, and general good conduct shall in anyway influence us in electing our officers.

It is not of record that any members of the Gileadites actually took a hand in a slave-rescue "with suitable implements." There is, on the other hand, no doubt that the determined Springfield wool-merchant, in drafting these resolutions in his fifty-first year, meant them to contain advice which may briefly be summed up as forcible resistance to the officers of the law, and an admonition to shoot to kill on all such occasions. As long as he was in Springfield, John Brown continued to concern himself with these colored friends. On November 28, 1850, just before he organized the Gileadites, he wrote to his wife: 15 "I of course keep encouraging my colored friends to 'trust in God and keep their powder dry.' I did so today, at Thanksgiving meeting, publicly."

From the Gileadites to plans for guerrilla warfare was an easy step. In his second memorandum-book, preserved in the Boston Public Library, there is an entry which was probably recorded early in 1855. It reads thus:

"Circassia has about 550,000

Switzerland 2,037,030

Guerilla warfare see Life of Lord Wellington Page 71 to Page 75 (Mina). See also Page 102 some valuable hints in same Book. See also Page 196 some most important instructions to officers. See also same Book Page 235 these words Deep and narrow defiles where 300 men would suffice to check an army. See also Page 236 on top of Page."

The book in question is Joachim Hayward Stocqueler's two-volume 'Life of Field Marshal the Duke of Wellington,' published in London in 1852, and the activity of the Spanish guerrillas under their able leader Mina was what attracted Brown's attention. The "most important instructions to officers" related to discipline and cooking, and page 235 furnished a description of the mountainous and broken topography of Spain. Directly opposite the entry quoted above is a list of Southern towns, with four Pennsylvania cities mixed in, as if Brown were considering such strategic points as Little Rock, Arkansas; Charleston, South Carolina; San Antonio,