turies; but about 1150 the Saxon began to assume a form, in which the beginning of the present English, may evidently be discovered. This

change, seems not to have been the effect of the Norman invasion, for very few French words are to be found introduced in it, even in the first century afterwards. The writing introduced into England by William I. is commonly called Norman, though the characters are nearly Lombard; and they were used in charters &c. until the reign of Edward III., with very little variation. The hand called modern Gothic, was introduced into England in the twelfth century, though it had been practised in Germany about the close of the ninth. The Normans also brought into England, the custom of using seals, bearing the impress of a knight on horseback; instead of the Anglo-Saxon custom of signing a deed, either by subscription of name, or by the figure of the cross for such as could not write, the name having been first inserted by the scribe. Copious particulars and specimens of the writing of different periods of English history, will be found in the record publications referred to in the Introduction to this work, and in Mr Thomas Astle's History of the Origin and Progress of Writing, Lond. 1803.

The state of English Poetry in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, was extremely rude and imperfect. It was, however, liberally encouraged by Matilda, Queen of Henry I., King Richard I., by William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, his favourite minister, who kept several poets in his pay, and even procured minstrels from France, to enliven the streets of London by their songs. The works which met with the most encouragement from per

sons of rank, were probably in the Norman or French languages. As it is impossible, however, to illustrate this subject within the limits of these volumes, the reader is at once referred, to the following established and interesting works relative to it. Warton's History of English Poetry, the recent octavo edition already cited, and the abridged notices and specimens from this work contained in J. P. Andrews's History of Great Britain : Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, by Dr Thomas Percy, Bishop of Dromore, Lond. 1794, 8vo, 3 vols, Pieces of Ancient Popular Poetry, Lond. 1791, 8vo: Ancient English Metrical Romances, Lond. 1802, 8vo: and Bibliographia Poetica, Lond. 1802, 8vo; all by the late Joseph Ritson Specimens of the Early English Poets, Lond. 1801, 8vo, 3 vols. and Specimens of the Early English Metrical Romances, Lond. 1805, 8vo, 3 vols., both by the late Mr G. Ellis: and his edition of Mr G. L. Way's Fabliaux, or Tales abridged from the French MSS. of the 12th and 13th Centuries, translated into English Verse, Lond. 1815, 3 vols. 8vo.

Queen Matilda was so munificent a patroness of music and its professors, that she is said to have oppressed her tenants to procure the means of re-warding them; though it was church music to which she was most attached. This study, had been greatly facilitated by Guido Aretino's discovery of the gamut, in 1025; for he stated, that it enabled a student to do more in one year, than in ten by the ordinary method; adding, that he believed the invention was by direct heavenly inspiration,—had atoned for his sins, and had secured the salvation of his soul. This improve

ment was soon transplanted to England, and was also speedily followed by many of those adventitious graces, which very early characterized Italian music, and which are censured as effeminate and dangerous by the learned John of Salisbury in the eleventh century. Almost the only musical instruments of this period, were the organ and harp, and sometimes violins with four and five strings. In war, however, the Anglo-Normans used the horn and the trumpet. The history of English music is scarcely less extensive than that of the national poetry; as may be seen by consulting the two best works on the subject, where its antiquities, its improvements, and its professors, are copiously and interestingly treated. These are, the General History of Music, by Dr Charles Burney, Lond. 1776-89, 4to, 4 vols ; and that by Sir John Hawkins, Lond. 1776, 4to, 5 vols.

The Painting of England, is to be found in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, in the decorations of the Anglo-Norman churches. Stubbes, the historian, celebrates the beautiful pictures in the church of St John of Beverley, and Gervase of Dover, praises those which were placed by Archbishop Lanfranc in Canterbury Cathedral. Portrait-painting was, however, known and practised in Rome; and pictures are extant, said to have been taken from William I. and his family; but representations of particular persons, are also to be found in the illuminated manuscripts, which had long been produced in England. Many of these of all periods, were collected and engraven by Mr Joseph Strutt, in the works already mentioned in the Introduction to the former volume; and his

Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities contain, in particular, numerous copies of ancient portraits of English Kings and Prelates. The numerous

splendid specimens of ancient English illuminations, which yet remain in the finest state of preservation, give a very perfect idea of the general art of the period before the use of painting in oil. It may generally be remarked, that painting as a decoration, is said to have been introduced into this island by Venerable Bede; and that St Wolstan, Bishop of Worcester, in 1062, or Ervenius, his master, was one of the earliest of English painters. In the time of Henry II., some of the Barons, who were unwilling to engage in arms, are satirised for having their saddles painted with representations of combats. Sculpture is known to have flourished in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, in the effigies which adorned ecclesiastical edifices.

Towards the close of the eleventh century, stone came into general use in large buildings, and even in private houses glass was not uncommon, though it was regarded as a luxury. Arches of stone, called Bows, were in great esteem about the same period. In 1087, the Church of St Mary in Cheapside, London, was built on stone arches, whence it received the name of St Mary le Bow; and near the same time Queen Matilda erected the first arched bridge in England at Stratford in Essex, which procured for it the name of “Stratford at the Bow. The old stone London bridge, with nineteen arches and a drawbridge, was not commenced until 1176, by Peter, a chaplain of Colechurch, when it occupied thirty-three years

in erecting. An interesting account of the rebuilding of Canterbury Cathedral in 1174, translated from the account of Gervase of Dover, is printed in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1772, vol. xlii. pages 259, 312, and 362. At this time London had some few houses of stone, but the greater number were still sheds of wood, called wickes, standing on an unpaved and marshy soil, as was also that of Paris; though the workmen and stone, employed to rebuild St Paul's Cathedral in 1187, were from Normandy. The edifice was reared upon arches of stone, and is called by the authors of the period a wonderful work. The few remains of English castles erected before the thirteenth century, appear strong and heavy, with little elegance: but the era of that stately style of architecture called Gothic was now approaching, it appearing under the tasteful Henry III., and his noble successor Edward I. The characters of the Norman castle, and those of the twelfth century, were a lofty keep of three stories, the lowest being for stores, the next for a general room, and the upper, or Solarium, for the state-apartments. The next improvement, was the addition of a strong distant gateway, and low walls and offices round the base, to extend the conveniences of the building, and to keep off the enemy, when they approached to undermine it.

The Medical art of this period, as well as the principal practice of the Law, was almost entirely monopolised by the clergy; who, in fact, possessed nearly all the knowledge of the early ages. In neither science do they seem to have excelled; the lawyers were a subject of continual complaint as to their dishonesty, bribery and injustice; and