may take place, and that individuality may be developed, there must be difference of employments-the artisan and the ploughman taking their places by each other.

Throughout the world, human energy is developed in the ratio of the existence of those differences which are required for the constitution of a society perfect in itself, and exercising, in relation to the world at large, that entire individuality which distinguishes the properly constituted MAN-the rapidity of circulation being then in a ratio correspondent to the development of human power. "The more perfect a being, the more dissimilar," says Goethe, "are the parts. "* In Ireland, India, Turkey, Portugal, Jamaica, and Carolina, all the parts are alike; and hence it is, that the potential energy of the people remains latent-that the circulation is sluggish-and that the people remain enslaved. In France, Germany, and Massachusetts, differences are numerous; and hence it is, that the powers of their people become more developed from day to day-that the circulation becomes more rapid—and that the people become more free.

The more rapid the circulation throughout the physical body, the more perfect is the distribution of force among its various parts the higher is the health-and the greater is the force exerted. So, too, as we shall have occasion to see, is it in the social body—the distribution of the proceeds of labor becoming more equitable, and societary action more healthy, in the precise ratio of increase in the circulation. Look where we may, we find evidence of the universality of those great laws instituted for the government of matter in all its forms- heat, motion, and force, being everywhere found, in the precise ratio of the development of individuality, and of the power of association and combination.

Turning, however, to Messrs. Malthus and Ricardo, we find the reverse of this-man becoming more and more the slave of nature, as he grows in the power of combination with his fellowmen and the distribution becoming more unequal, and unjust, as communities more abound in wealth.

* See ante, vol. i. p. 53.

CHAPTER XLI.

OF DISTRIBUTION.

I.-Of Wages, Profit, and Interest.

§ 1. CAPITAL - the instrument by means of which man acquires power to direct the forces of nature to his service-is a result of the accumulated mental and physical efforts of the past. The standing tree was as fully susceptible of being rendered available to Crusoe's purposes, as it could have become had it been felled; but its powers were latent; and so remained, too, at the close of years of constant, but ineffectual, effort for attaining power so to guide and direct them, as to make them contribute to his support. The fibre required for his bow had been at all times equally capable of rendering service, but without an exercise of that mental effort of which man, alone, is capable, the bow would have remained unmade- the properties of both the wood and the fibre still continuing latent. Once made, its value was great-having been obtained at the cost of serious labor. Its utility was small, for it was capable of little work.

Friday had no canoe, nor had he acquired the mental capital required for producing such an instrument. Had Crusoe owned one, and had Friday desired to borrow it, the former might thus have answered him: "Fish abound at some little distance from the shore, whereas they are scarce in our immediate neighborhood. Working without the help of my canoe, you will scarcely, with all your labor, obtain the food required for the preservation of life; whereas, with it, you will, with half your time, take as many fish as will supply us both. Give me three-fourths of all you take, and you shall have the remainder for your services. This will secure you an abundant supply of food-leaving much of your time unoccupied, to be applied to giving yourself better shelter and better clothing."

Hard as this might seem, Friday would have accepted the offer-profiting by Crusoe's capital, though paying dearly for its use. Reflection, however, would have led him soon to see, that if he could become himself owner of a boat, he could retain the entire product thus obtaining, in exchange for three hours' labor, the food for which he now gave twelve. Stimulated by this idea, and desirous of utilizing the time and force already economised, he next makes terms with Crusoe for the use of his knife-in process of time becoming, by its aid, possessor of a boat. Both being now capitalists, their conditions would have much approximated-notwithstanding the advances that Crusoe might, himself, have made. At first, his wealth stood at 10, while that of Friday, was at 0. The former has now reached 40, but the latter has attained to 5 or 10. Tendency towards equality is, thus, a natural consequence of that growth of wealth, by means of which man is enabled to substitute mental for merely physical force. Every increase in his power over nature is but the preparation for further and greater motion in the same direction - the forces which had opposed his progress becoming gradually centred in himself, and aiding in the subjection of others, whose power being greater, more strenuously resist his efforts. Therefore it is, that here, as everywhere, it is the first step that is most costly, yet least productive. Look where we may, we see man passing from the weaker towards the more powerful instruments of production the poor settler gladly using wood-coal in the production of iron, although surrounded by mineral coal capable of performing thrice the service, in return for half the labor. The more the capability of rendering service, the greater is the resistance to be overcome, whether we desire to command the services of men, or things, in which that power resides. The laws of nature are thus, as we see, of universal truth-being equally applicable to man and to the forces given by the Creator for his

use.

2. The bow having brought with it power over nature, its next effect is found in increase of Friday's power to direct himself. Having leisure, he devotes it to the construction of a canoe -by help of which he obtains further leisure. Giving this to the making of a knife and sail, all next combine for giving him power

to be applied to the construction of a house-the quantity of labor required for reproducing existing capital, and further extending the quantity of capital, diminishing with every stage of progress. Past accumulations tend steadily to decline in value labor rising not less steadily when compared with them. The first stone-knife was the fruit of far more effort than was afterwards required for making one of bronze-the latter proving, however, a far more efficient instrument. The stone-axe ceases now to have any value whatsoever; and yet, in the earlier periods, its services had been held as equal to threefourths of those of the man who used it. The axe of iron and steel now coming into use, and proving still more efficient, the bronze axe, in turn, declines in value. The more useful instrument being obtained, too, in return for far less effort than had before been given for the inferior one-the decline in the value of earlier ones is thus again increased. Mind having obtained command over matter, the great natural forces become centred in man, who now discards the earlier instruments-preserving specimens, only as curious evidences of the inferiority of his predecessors, who had wrought with their hands alone.

Measuring himself against his products and his instruments, man attributes to himself every increase of utility in the materials by which he is surrounded. The greater that utility, the higher is his own value, and the less that of the things he needs. The cost of reproduction steadily declining, he himself as steadily rises every reduction in the value of existing capital being so much added to the value of the MAN.

§ 3. Little as was the work that could be done with the help of an axe of stone, its service to the owner had been very great. It was, therefore, clear to him, that the man to whom he lent it should pay him largely for its use. He could, too, as we readily see, well afford to do so. Cutting, with it, more wood in a day than, without it, he could cut in a month, he would profit by its help, were he allowed but a tenth of his labor's products. Being permitted to retain a fourth, he finds his wages much increased, notwithstanding the large proportion claimed, as profit, by his neighbor capitalist.

The bronze-axe being next obtained, and proving far more useful, its owner-being asked to grant its use—is now, however, required to recollect, that not only had the productiveness of labor greatly increased, but the quantity required to be given to the production of an axe had also greatly decreased capital thus declining in its power over labor, as labor increased in its power for the reproduction of capital. He, therefore, limits himself to demanding two-thirds of the price of the more potent instrument saying to the wood-cutter: "You can do twice as much work with this, as you now do with our neighbor's stoneaxe; and if I permit you to retain a third of the wood that is cut, your wages will still be doubled." This arrangement being made, the comparative effects of the earlier and later distributions are as follows:

The reward of labor has more than doubled, as a consequence of the receipt of an increased proportion of an increased quantity. The capitalist's share has not quite doubled-he receiving a diminished proportion of the same increased quantity. The position of the laborer, which had, at first, stood as only one to three, is now as one to two; with great increase of power to accumulate, and thus to become himself a capitalist. With the substitution of mental for merely physical power, the tendency to equality becomes more and more developed.

The axe of iron next coming, a new distribution is requiredthe cost of reproduction having again diminished, while labor has again increased in its proportions, as compared with capital. The new instrument cuts twice as much as had been cut by the one of bronze; and yet its owner finds himself compelled to be content with claiming half the product-the following figures now presenting a comparative view of the several modes of distribution:

The axe of iron and steel now coming, the product is again

doubled, with further diminution in the cost of reproduction;