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thing at all like the fourth book of Virgil, the Alcmene, and Baucis and Philemon of Ovid, and some of the elegies of Tibullus, in the whole range of Greek literature. The memory of their departed freedom, too, conspired to give an air of sadness to much of the Roman poetry, and their feeling of the lateness of the age in which they were born. The Greeks thought only of the present and the future; but the Romans had begun already to live in the past, and to make pensive reflections on the faded glory of mankind. The historians of this classic age, though they have more of a moral character than those of Greece, are still but superficial teachers of wisdom. Their narration is more animated, and more pleasingly dramatised, by the orations with which it is interspersed ;-but they have neither the profound reflection of Tacitus, nor the power of explaining great events by general causes, which distinguishes the writers of modeni times.

ly domestic, and did not extend to what, in repressed in a good degree by the remains of modern times, is denominated society. With their national austerity, there is also a great all the severity of their character, the Romans deal more tenderness of affection. In spite nad much more real tenderness than the of the pathos of some scenes in Euripides, Greeks,―though they repressed its external and the melancholy passion of some fragindications, as among those marks of weak-ments of Simonides and Sappho, there is noness which were unbecoming men intrusted with the interests and the honour of their country. Madame de Staël has drawn a pretty picture of the parting of Brutus and Portia; and contrasted it, as a specimen of national character, with the Grecian group of Pericles pleading for Aspasia. The general observation, we are persuaded, is just; but the examples are not quite fairly chosen. Brutus is a little too good for an average of Roman virtue. If she had chosen Mark Antony, or Lepidus, the contrast would have been less brilliant. The self-control which their principles required of them-the law which they had imposed on themselves, to have no indulgence for suffering in themselves or in others, excluded tragedy from the range of their literature. Pity was never to be recognized by a Roman, but when it came in the shape of a noble clemency to a vanquished foe;-and wailings and complaints were never to disgust the ears of men, who knew how to act and to suffer in tranquillity. The very frequency of suicide in Rome, belonged to this characteristic. There was no other alternative, but to endure firmly, or to die; nor were importunate lamentations to be endured from one who was free to quit life whenever he could not bear it without murmuring.

What has been said relates to the literature of republican Rome. The usurpation of Augustus gave a new character to her genius; and brought it back to those poctical studies with which most other nations have begun. The cause of this, too, is obvious. While liberty survived, the study of philosophy and oratory and history was but as an instrument in the hands of a liberal and patriotic ambition, and naturally attracted the attention of all whose talents entitled them to aspire to the first dignities of the state. After an absolute government was established, those high prizes were taken out of the lottery of life; and the primitive uses of those noble instruments expired. There was no longer any safe or worthy end to be gained, by influencing the conduct, or fixing the principles of men. But it was still permitted to seek their applause by ministering to their delight; and talent and ambition, when excluded from the nobler career of political activity, naturally sought for a humbler harvest of glory in the cultivation of poetry, and the arts of imagination. The poetry of the Romans, however, derived this advantage from the lateness of its origin, that it was enriched by all that knowledge of the human heart, and those habits of reflection, which had been generated by the previous study of philosophy. There is uniformly more thought, therefore, and more development, both of reason and of moral feeling, in the poets of the Augustan age, than in any of their Greek predecessors; and though

The atrocious tyranny that darkened the earlier ages of the empire, gave rise to the third school of Roman literature. The sufferings to which men were subjected, turned their thoughts inward on their own hearts; and that philosophy which had first been courted as the handmaid of a generous ambition, was now sought as a shelter and consolation in misery. The maxims of the Stoics were again revived,—not, indeed, to stimulate to noble exertion, but to harden against misfortune. Their lofty lessons of virtue were again repeated-but with a bitter accent of despair and reproach; and that indulgence, or indifference towards vice, which had characterised the first philosophers, was now converted, by the terrible experience of its evils, into vehement and gloomy invective. Seneca, Tacitus, Epictetus, all fall under this description; and the same spirit is discernible in Juvenal and Lucan. Much more profound views of human nature, and a far greater moral sensibility characterise this age, and show that even the unspeakable degradation to which the abuse of power had then sunk the mistress of the world, could not arrest altogether that intellectual progress which gathers its treasures from all the varieties of human fortune. Quintilian and the two Plinys afford further evidence of this progress; for they are, in point of thought and accuracy, and profound sense, conspicuously superior to any writers upon similar subjects in the days of Augustus. Poetry and the fine arts languish ed, indeed, under the rigours of this blasting despotism;-and it is honourable, on the whole, to the memory of their former greatness, that so few Roman poets should have sullied their pens by any traces of adulation towards the monsters who then sat in the place of power.

We pass over Madame de Staël's view of

the middle ages, and of the manner in which | la fin de l'existence, et laisser voir encore le même the mixture of the northern and southern races tableau sous le crêpe funebre du temps. Une sensibilité rêveuse et profonde est un des ameliorated the intellect and the morality of both. One great cause of their mutual im- dernes; et ce sont les femmes qui, ne connoissant plus grands charmes de quelques ouvrages moprovement, however, she truly states to have de la vie que la faculté d'aimer, ont fait passer la been the general prevalence of Christianity; douceur de leurs impressions dans le style de quelwhich, by the abolition of domestic slavery, ques écrivains. En lisant les livres composés deremoved the chief cause, both of the corrup- puis la renaissance des lettres, l'on pourroit martion and the ferocity of ancient manners. quer à chaque page, qu'elles sont les idées qu'on By n'avoit pas, avant qu'on eût accordé aux femmes investing the conjugal union, too, with a sacred une sorte d'égalité civile. La générosité, la valeur, character of equality, it at once redressed the l'humanité, ont pris à quelques égards une acceplong injustice to which the female sex had tion différente. Toutes les vertus des anciens been subjected, and blessed and gladdened étoient fondées sur l'amour de la patrie; les femmes private life with a new progeny of joys, and a La pitié pour la foiblesse, la sympathie pour le malexercent leurs qualités d'une manière indépendante. new fund of knowledge of the most interest-heur, une élévation d'ame, sans autre but que la ing description. Upon a subject of this kind, jouissance même de cette élévation, sont beaucoup we naturally expect a woman to express her- plus dans leur nature que les vertus politiques. Les self with peculiar animation; and Madame modernes, influencés par les femmes, ont facilede Staël has done it ample justice in the fol- ment cédé aux liens de la philanthropie; et l'esprit est devenue plus philosophiquement libre, en se lowing, and in other passages. livrant moins à l'empire des associations exclusives." pp. 212-215.

"C'est donc alors que les femmes commencèrent à être de moitié dans l'association humaine. C'est alors aussi que l'on connut véritablement le bonheur It is principally to this cause that she domestique. Trop de puissance déprave la bonté, ascribes the improved morality of modern altère toutes les jouissances de la délicatesse; les times. The improvement of their intellect vertus et les sentimens ne peuvent résister d'une she refers more generally to the accumulapart à l'exercice du pouvoir, de l'autre à l'habitude tion of knowledge, and the experience of de la crainte. La félicité de l'homme s'accrut de which they have had the benefit. Instead toute l'indépendance qu'obtint l'objet de sa tendresse; il put se croire aimé; un être libre le of the eager spirit of emulation, and the unchoisit; un être libre obéit à ses desirs. Les ap- weighed and rash enthusiasm which kindled perçus de l'esprit, les nuances senties par le cœur the genius of antiquity into a sort of youthful se multiplièrent avec les idées et les impressions de or instinctive animation, we have a spirit of ces ames nouvelles, qui s'essayoient à l'existence deep reflection, and a feeling of mingled morale, après avoir long-temps langui dans la vie. Les femmes n'ont point composé d'ouvrages vérit- melancholy and philanthropy, inspired by a ablement supérieurs; mais elles n'en ont pas moins more intimate knowledge of the sufferings, éminemment servi les progres de la littérature, the affections, and the frailties of human par la foule de pensées qu'ont inspirées aux hommes nature. There is a certain touching and pales relations entretenues avec ces êtres mobiles et thetic tone, therefore, diffused over almost delicats. Tous les rapports se sont doublés, pour all modern writings of the higher order; and ainsi dire, depuis que les objets ont été considérés in the art of agitating the soul, and moving sous un point de vue tout-à-fait nouveau. La confiance d'un lien intime en a plus appris sur la nature the gentler affections of the heart, there is morale, que tous les traités et tous les systêmes qui nothing in all antiquity that can be considered peignoient l'homme tel qu'il se montre à l'homme, as belonging to the same class with the wriet non tel qu'il est réellement."-pp. 197, 198. tings of Bossuet or Rousseau-many passages Les femmes ont découvert dans les caractères in the English poets-and some few in those une foule de nuances, que le besoin de dominer ou la crainte d'être asservies leur a fait appercevoir : of Germany. The sciences, of course, have elles ont fourni au talent dramatique de nouveaux made prodigious advances; for in these nothsecrets pour émouvoir. Tous les sentimens aux-ing once gained can be lost,-and the mere quels il leur est permis de se livrer, la crainte de la elapse of ages supposes a vast accumulation. mort, le regret de la vie, le dévouement sans In morals, the progress has been greatest in bornes, l'indignation sans mesure, enrichissent la littérature d'expressions nouvelles. De-là vient que les moralistes modernes ont en général beaucoup plus de finesse et de sagacité dans la connois. sance des hommes, que les moralistes de l'antiquité. Quiconque, chez les anciens, ne pouvoit atteindre à la renommée, n'avoit aucun motif de développe

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Depuis qu'on est deux dans la vie domestique, les communications de l'esprit et l'exercice de la morale existent toujours, au moins dans un petit cercle; les enfans sont devenus plus chers à leur parens, par la tendresse réciproque qui forme le lien conjugal; et toutes les affections ont pris l'eml'amitié, de l'estime et de l'attrait, de la confiance de cette divine alliance de l'amour et de méritée et de la séduction involontaire.

Un âge aride, que la gloire et la vertu pouvoient honorer, mais qui ne devoit plus être ranimé par les émotions du cœur, la vieillesse s'est enrichie de toutes les pensées de la mélancolie; il lui a été donné de se ressouvenir, de regretter, d'aimer encore ce qu'elle avoit aimé. Les affections morales, unies, dès la jeunesse, aux passions brulantes, peuvent se prolonger par de nobles traces jusqu'à

the private virtues-in the sacred regard for life-in compassion, sympathy, and beneficence. Nothing, indeed, can illustrate the difference of the two systems more strikingly, than the opposite views they take of the relation of parent and child. Filial obedience and submission was enjoined by the ancient code with a rigour from which reason and justice equally revolt. According to our present notions, parental love is a duty of at least mutual obligation; and as nature has placed the power of showing kindness almost exclusively in the hands of the father, it seems but reasonable that the exercise of it should at last be enjoined as a duty.

Madame de Staël begins her review of modern literature with that of Italy. It was there that the manuscripts-the monuments

the works of art of the imperial nation. were lost;-and it was there, of course, that

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they were ultimately recovered. The re-ried form than those of the northern romansearches necessary for this, required authority cers. The two styles however were brought and money; and they were begun, accord- together, partly by the effect of the crusades, ingly, under the patronage of princes and and partly by the Moorish settlement iu academies:-circumstances favourable to the Spain; and Ariosto had the merit of first accumulation of knowledge, and the forma- combining them into one, in that miraculous tion of mere scholars-but adverse to the poem, which contains more painting, more development of original genius. The Italians, variety, and more imagination, than any other accordingly, have been scholars, and have poem in existence. The fictions of Boyardo furnished the rest of Europe with the im- are more purely in the taste of the Orientals; plements of liberal study; but they have and Tasso is imbued far more deeply with the achieved little for themselves in the high spirit and manner of the Augustan classics. philosophy of politics and morals-though they have to boast of Galileo, Cassini, and a long list of celebrated names in the physical sciences. In treating of subjects of a large and commanding interest, they are almost always bombastic and shallow. Nothing, indeed, can be more just or acute than the following delineation of this part of their character.

"Les Italiens, accoutumés souvent à ne rien croire et à tout professer, se sont bien plus exercés dans la plaisanterie que dans le raisonnement. Ils se moquent de leur propre maniére d'être. Quand ils veulent renoncer à leur talent naturel, à l'esprit comique, pour essayer de l'éloquence oratoire, ils ont presque toujours de l'affectation. Les souvenirs d'une grandeur passée, sans aucun sentiment de grandeur présente, produisent le gigantesque. Les Italiens auroient de la dignité, si la plus sombre tristesse formoit leur caractère; mais quand les successeurs des Romains, privés de tout éclat national, de toute liberté politique, sont encore un des peuples les plus gais de la terre, ils ne peuvent avoir aucun élévation naturelle.

The false refinements, the concetti, the ingenious turns and misplaced subtlety, which have so long been the reproach of the Italian literature, Madame de Staël ascribes to their early study of the Greek Theologians, and later Platonists, who were so much in favour at the first revival of learning. The nice distinctions and sparkling sophistries which these gentlemen applied, with considerable success, in argument, were unluckily transferred, by Petrarch, to subjects of love and gallantry; and the fashion was set of a most unnatural alliance between wit and passioningenuity and profound emotion,-which has turned out, as might have been expected, to the discredit of both the contracting parties. We admit the fact, and its consequences: but we do not agree as to the causes which are here supposed to have produced it. We really do not think that the polemics of Constantiand have little doubt that it originated in that nople are answerable for this extravagance; desire to impress upon their productions the visible marks of labour and art, which is felt by almost all artists in the infancy of the study. As all men can speak, and set words together in a natural order, it was likely to occur to those who first made an art of composition, and challenged general admiration for an arrangement of words, that it was necessary to make a very strong and conspicuous distinction between their compositions and ordinary and casual discourse; and to proclaim to the most careless reader or hearer, that a great difficulty had been surmounted, and something effected which every In poetry, however, the brilliant imagina-one was not in a condition to accomplish. tion of the South was sure to re-assert its This feeling, we have no doubt, first gave claims to admiration; and the first great occasion to versification in all languages; and poets of modern Italy had the advantage of will serve to account, in a good degree, for opening up a new career for their talents. the priority of metrical to prose compositions: Poetical fiction, as it is now known in Europe, but where versification was remarkably easy, seems to have had two distinct sources. or already familiar, some visible badge of Among the fierce and illiterate nations of artifice would also be required in the thought; the North, nothing had any chance of being and, accordingly, there seems to have been a listened to, that did not relate to the feats of certain stage in the progress of almost all war in which it was their sole ambition to literature, in which this excess has been comexcel; and poetical invention was forced to mitted. In Italy, it occurred so early as the display itself in those legends of chivalry, time of Petrarch. In France, it became conwhich contain merely an exaggerated picture spicuous in the writings of Voiture, Balsac, of scenes that were familiar to all their audi- and all that coterie; and in England, in Cowtors. In Asia, again, the terrors of a san- ley, Donne, and the whole tribe of metaguinary despotism had driven men to express physical poets. Simplicity, in short, is the their emotions, and to insinuate their moral last attainment of progressive literature; and admonitions, in the form of apologues and men are very long afraid of being natural, fables; and as these necessarily took a very from the dread of being taken for ordinary. wild and improbable course, their fictions There is a simplicity, indeed, that is anteceassumed a much more extravagant and va-dent to the existence of ar ything like literary

Les Italiens se moquent dans leur contes, et souvent même sur le théâtre, des prêtres, auxquels ils sont d'ailleurs entièrement asservis. Mais ce n'est point sous un point de vue philosophique qu'ils attaquent les abus de la religion. Ils n'ont pas, comme quelques-uns de nos écrivains, le but de réformer les défauts dont ils plaisantent; ce qu'ils veulent seulement, c'est s'amuser d'autant plus que le sujet est plus sérieux. Leurs opinions sont, dans le fond, assez opposées à tous les genres d'autorité auxquels ils sont soumis; mais cet esprit d'opposition n'a de force que ce qu'il faut pour pouvoir mépriser ceux qui les commandent. C'est la ruse des enfans envers leurs pédagogues; ils leur obéissent, à condition qu'il leur soit permis de s'en moquer."-p. 248.

ambition or critical taste in a nation,-the sim- | right in saying, that there is a radical differ plicity of the primitive ballads and legends ence in the taste and genius of the two reof all rude nations; but after a certain degree of taste has been created, and composition has become an object of pretty general attention, simplicity is sure to be despised for a considerable period; and indeed, to be pretty uniformly violated in practice, even after it is restored to nominal honour and veneration.

We do not, however, agree the less cordially with Madame de Staël in her remarks upon the irreparable injury which affectation does to taste and to character. The following is marked with all her spirit and sagacity.

"L'affectation est de tous les défauts des carac

tères et des écrits, celui qui tarit de la manière la plus irréparable la source de tout bien; car elle blase sur la vérité même, dont elle imite l'accent. Dans quelque genre que ce soit, tous les mots qui ont servi à des idées fausses, à de froides exagérations, sont pendant long-temps frappés d'aridité; et telle langue même peut perdre entièrement la puissance d'émouvoir sur tel sujet, si elle a été trop souvent prodignée à ce sujet même. Ainsi peut-étre l'Italien est-il de toutes les langues de l'Europe la moins propre à l'éloquence passionnée de l'amour, comme la nôtre est maintenant usée pour l'éloquence de la liberté."-pp. 241, 242.

gions; and that there is more melancholy, more tenderness, more deep feeling and fixed and lofty passion, engendered among the clouds and mountains of the North, that upon the summer seas or beneath the perfumed groves of the South. The causes of the difference are not perhaps so satisfactorily stated. Madame de Staël gives the first place to the climate.

Another characteristic is the hereditary independence of the northern tribes-arising partly from their scattered population and inaccessible retreats, and partly from the physical force and hardihood which their way of life, and the exertions requisite to procure subsistence in those regions, necessarily produced. Their religious creed, too, even be fore their conversion to Christianity, was less fantastic, and more capable of leading to heroic emotions than that of the southern nations. The respect and tenderness with which they always regarded their women, is another cause (or effect) of the peculiarity of their national character; and, in later times, their general adoption of the Protestant faith has tended to confirm that character. For our own part, we are inclined to ascribe more weight to the last circumstance, than to all the others that have been mentioned; and that not merely from the better education which it is the genius of Protestantism to bestow on the lower orders, but from the nec

Scriptures which it enjoins. A very great proportion of the Protestant population of Europe is familiarly acquainted with the Bible; and there are many who are acquainted with scarcely any other book. Now, the Bible is not only full of lessons of patience and humility and compassion, but abounds with a gloomy and awful poetry, which cannot fail to make a powerful impression on minds that are not exposed to any other, and receive this under the persuasion of its divine origin. The peculiar character, therefore, which Madame de Staël has ascribed to the people of the North in general, will now be found, we believe, to belong only to such of them as profess the reformed religion; and to be discernible in all the communities that maintain that profession, without much regard to the degree of latitude which they inhabit-though at the same time it is undeniable, that its general adoption in the North must be explained by some of the more general causes which we have shortly indicated above.

Their superstition and tyranny-their inquisition and arbitrary governments have arrested the progress of the Italians as they have in a great degree prevented that of the Spaniards in the career of letters and philosophy. But for this, the Spanish genius would probably have gone far. Their early romances show a grandeur of conception, and a gen-essary effect of the universal study of the uine enthusiasm; and their dramas, though irregular, are full of spirit and invention. Though bombastic and unnatural in most of their serious compositions, their extravagance is not so cold and artificial as that of the Italians; but seems rather to proceed from a natural exaggeration of the fancy, and an inconsiderate straining after a magnificence which they had not skill or patience to attain. We come now to the literature of the North, -by which name Madame de Staël designates the literature of Eugland and Germany, and on which she passes an encomium which we scarcely expected from a native of the South. She startles us a little, indeed, when she sets off with a dashing parallel between Homer and Ossian; and proceeds to say, that the peculiar character of the northern literature has all been derived from that Patriarch of the Celts, in the same way as that of the south of Europe may be ultimately traced back to the genius of Homer. It is certainly rather against this hypothesis, that the said Ossian has only been known to the readers and writers of the North for about forty years from the present day, and has not been held in especial reverence by those who have most distinguished themselves in that short period. However, we shall suppose that Madame de Staël means only, that the style of Ossian reunites the peculiarities that distinguish the northern school of letters, and may be supposed to exhibit them such as they were before the introduction of the classical and Bouthern models. We rather think she is

The great fault which the French impute to the writers of the North, is want of taste and politeness. They generally admit that they have genius; but contend that they do not know how to use it; while their partisans maintain, that what is called want of taste is merely excess of genius, and independence of pedantic rules and authorities. Madame de Staël, though admitting the transcendent merits of some of the English writers, takes part, upon the whole, against then in this

controversy; and, after professing her unqualified preference of a piece compounded of great blemishes and great beauties, compared with one free of faults, but distinguished by little excellence, proceeds very wisely to remark, that it would be still better if the great faults were corrected—and that it is but a bad species of independence which manifests itself by being occasionally offensive: and then she attacks Shakespeare, as usual, for interspersing so many puerilities and absurdities and grossiéretés with his sublime and pathetic passages.

is that which enables him to receive the greatest quantity of pleasure from the greatest number of things. With regard to the author again, or artist of any other description, who pretends to bestow the pleasure, his object of course should be, to give as much, and to as many persons as possible; and especially to those who, from their rank and education, are likely to regulate the judgment of the remainder. It is his business therefore to ascertain what does please the greater part of such persons; and to fashion his productions according to the rules of taste which may be Now, there is no denying, that a poem deduced from that discovery. Now, we humwould be better without faults; and that ju- bly conceive it to be a complete and final jusdicious painters use shades only to set off tification for the whole body of the English their pictures, and not blots. But there are nation, who understand French as well as two little remarks to be made. In the first English and yet prefer Shakespeare to Racine, place, if it be true that an extreme horror at just to state, modestly and firmly, the fact of faults is usually found to exclude a variety that preference; and to declare, that their of beauties, and that a poet can scarcely ever habits and tempers, and studies and occupaattain the higher excellencies of his art, with- tions, have been such as to make them receive out some degree of that rash and headlong far greater pleasure from the more varied confidence which naturally gives rise to blem-imagery-the more flexible tone-the closer ishes and excesses, it may not be quite so imitation of nature-the more rapid succesabsurd to hold, that this temperament and sion of incident, and vehement bursts of pasdisposition, with all its hazards, deserves en- sion of the English author, than from the couragement, and to speak with indulgence unvarying majesty-the elaborate argument of faults that are symptomatic of great beau--and epigrammatic poetry of the French draties. There is a primitive fertility of soil that matist. For the taste of the nation at large, naturally throws out weeds along with the we really cannot conceive that any other apolmatchless crops which it alone can bear; and ogy can be necessary; and though it might we might reasonably grudge to reduce its be very desirable that they should agree with zigour for the sake of purifying its produce. their neighbours upon this point, as well as There are certain savage virtues that can upon many others, we can scarcely imagine carcely exist in perfection in a state of com- any upon which their disagreement could be plete civilization; and, as specimens at least, attended with less inconvenience. For the we may wish to preserve, and be allowed to authors, again, that have the misfortune not admire them, with all their exceptionable to be so much admired by the adjoining naaccompaniments. It is easy to say, that tions as by their own countrymen, we can there is no necessary connection between the only suggest, that this is a very common misfaults and the beauties of our great dramat- fortune; and that, as they wrote in the lanist; but the fact is, that since men have be-guage of their country, and will probably be come afraid of falling into his faults, no one has approached to his beauties; and we have already endeavoured, on more than one occasion, to explain the grounds of this con

nection.

But our second remark is, hat it is not quite fair to represent the controversy as arising altogether from the excessive and undue indulgence of the English for the admitted faults of their favourite authors, and their persisting to idolize Shakespeare in spite of his buffooneries, extravagancies, and bombast. We admit that he has those faults; and, as they are faults, that he would be better without them but there are many more things which the French call faults, but which we deliberately consider as beauties. And here, we suspect, the dispute does not admit of any settlement: Because both parties, if they are really sincere in their opinion, and understand the subject of discussion, may very well be right, and for that very reason incapable of coming to any agreement. We consider taste to mean merely the faculty of receiving pleasure from beauty; and, so far as relates to the person receiving that pleasure, we apprehend it to admit of little doubt, that the best taste

always most read within its limits, it was not perhaps altogether unwise or unpardonable in them to accommodate themselves to the taste which was there established.

Madame de Staël has a separate chapter upon Shakespeare; in which she gives him full credit for originality, and for having been the first, and perhaps the only considerable author, who did not copy from preceding models, but drew all his greater conceptions directly from his own feelings and observations. His representations of human passions, therefore, are incomparably more true and touching, than those of any other writer; and are presented, moreover, in a far more elementary and simple state, and without any of those circumstances of dignity or contrast with which feebler artists seem to have held it indispensable that they should be set off. She considers him as the first writer who has ventured upon the picture of overwhelming sorrow and hopeless wretchedness;-that de solation of the heart, which arises from the long contemplation of ruined hopes and irre parable privation;—that inward anguish and bitterness of soul which the public life of the ancients prevented them from feeling, and

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