mento heres existat, tamdiu ex isdem legibus tutor petendus erat, qui desinebat tutor esse, si condicio existeret aut dies

recipiunt diem vel condicionem, velut emancipatio, acceptilatio, hereditatis aditio, servi optio, datio libertatis, in totum vitiantur per temporis vel condicionis adiectionem' Dig. 50. 17. 77. When the condition was satisfied or fulfilled, it was said, condicio existit: when it was certain that it had not been fulfilled, conditio deficit. Negative conditions are fulfilled when the fact or event whose non-occurrence is contemplated has become impossible; and in some cases a condition was regarded as fulfilled when in point of fact it had not been: (1) iure civili receptum est, quotiens per eum, cuius interest condicionem non impleri, fiat quominus impleatur, perinde haberi ac si impleta condicio fuisset' Dig. 42. 1. 161. (2) If the fulfilment of the condition is prevented by some other person's arbitrarily refusing consent or co-operation, 'plerumque haec condicio, si uxorem duxerit, si dederit, si fecerit, ita accipi oportet, quod per eum non stet, quominus ducat, det aut faciat' Dig. 28. 7. 23: or if the person entitled on fulfilment is prevented from fulfilling by other accidental cir

cumstances.

As regards the effect of a condition annexed to a disposition :

(a) If suspensive, the disposition, until it is fulfilled, is there and in existence, and does not come into existence only on its fulfilment : accordingly, it may have legal consequences even though, through failure of the condition, it is subsequently annihilated: e.g. a second will, in which the heir is instituted sub condicione, revokes a prior one, even though the condition is never fulfilled and the will as a whole thus never takes effect, Dig. 28. 3. 16. But rights conferred by the disposition are merely conditional, and can have no practical effect until the condition is fulfilled speaking precisely, there is only a chance of having the right, which chance by the fulfilment of the condition becomes an actuality: a contingent becomes a vested right.

(b) If resolutive, the disposition has presently all the effects which it would have, had it been unconditional, though these are liable to be cancelled and rendered null by the future fulfilment of the condition.

On the fulfilment of a suspensive condition, the disposition which has hitherto been conditional becomes unconditionally operative, and its operation is carried back to the time at which it was made: 'cum enim semel condicio extitit, perinde habetur ac si illo tempore, quo stipulatio interposita est, sine condicione facta esset' Dig. 20. 4. 10. II: this rule is expressed in the formula 'condicio existens ad initium negotii retrotrahitur.' On the fulfilment of a resolutive condition, the whole effect of the disposition is nullified, the condition operating retroactively so as to place the parties as far as possible in the position in which they would have been had the disposition never been made; Dig. 6. 1. 41; 13. 7. 13. pr.; 18. 2. 4. 3. For the effect of impossible conditions see on Bk. ii. 14. 10 inf. and cf. Bk. iii. 19. 11.

By dies, in connection with dispositions, is meant the fixing of a time, which may mark either (a) the commencement of a right: (6) its termina

2 veniret aut heres existeret. Ab hostibus quoque tutore capto ex his legibus tutor petebatur, qui desinebat esse tutor, si is qui captus erat in civitatem reversus fuerat: nam reversus 3 recipiebat tutelam iure postliminii. Sed ex his legibus pupillis tutores desierunt dari, posteaquam primo consules pupillis utriusque sexus tutores ex inquisitione dare coepe unt, deinde praetores ex constitutionibus. nam supra scriptis legibus neque de cautione a tutoribus exigenda rem salvam pupillis fore neque de compellendis tutoribus ad tutelae administrationem.

tion or (c) both its termination and commencement, i.e. its duration : ' vel ex die incipit obligatio aut confertur in diem : ex die, veluti Kalendis Martiis dare spondes? in diem autem, usque ad Kalendas Martias dare spondes?' Dig. 44. 7. 44. 1 (the language in Bk. iii. 15. 2 inf. differs from this and is inaccurate). The dies may be limited by express reference to the calendar (dies certus) or to some event certain to happen, though when it will actually happen is uncertain e.g. (as in wills) 'after my death,' or 'a year after my death' (dies incertus quando): finally dies and condicio may be combined: e.g. 'three months after so and so shall happen, if it ever shall' (dies incertus an et quando). Dies ex quo may be described as suspensive, dies in quem as resolutive. In the latter, the disposition is completely operative, and has its full effect until the dies comes, after which it has no effect whatever e.g. the grant of a usufruct till this day five years. In dies ex quo, on the other hand, the disposition has no jural effect until the dies arrives; 'dies adiectus efficit, ne praesenti die debeatur' Dig. 45. 1. 41. 1. Still, it is certain that the jural effect will come into existence sooner or later; 'pecunia, quam in diem certum dari stipulamur ... certum est eam debitum iri, licet post tempus petatur' Gaius iii. 124, cf. Dig. 7. 9. 9. 2 ; so that it is not improper to speak of the right as already existing as a vested right, though it may not be realized as yet in possession. It is this which distinguishes dies from condicio: it does not, like the latter, leave it uncertain whether a legal relation will be established or not, but it fixes the relation, only postponing the time at which the right can be realized in action: see Bk. iii. 15. 2 inf. 'quod in diem (ex die ?) stipulamur, statim quidem debetur sed peti prius quam dies veniat non potest :' so too Dig. 45. 1. 46. pr. 'centesimis Kalendis dari utiliter stipulamur, quia praesens obligatio est, in diem autem dilata solutio.' For other passages in which condicio and dies occur together see Bk. iii. 15. 2, ib. 16. 2, ib. 19. 5, ib. 26. 12, ib. 29. 3; Bk. iv. 6. 33. inf., and for the expression 'heres existere' see Bk. ii. 19. 5 inf.

§ 2. For 'postliminium' see on Tit. 12. 5 supr.

§ 3. The functions of the consuls in appointing tutors are alluded to in fragm. Vat. 155: cf. Sueton. Claudius 23 'sanxit ut pupillis extra ordinem tutores a consulibus darentur.' The scope of the 'inquisitio' is explained by Theophilus, εἰ εὔποροί εἰσιν . . . εἰ χρηστὸν ἔχουσι βίον, ἢ δυνά

quidquam cavetur. Sed hoc iure utimur, ut Romae quidem 4 praefectus urbis vel praetor secundum suam iurisdictionem, in provinciis autem praesides ex inquisitione tutores crearent, vel magistratus iussu praesidum, si non sint magnae pupilli facultates. Nos autem per constitutionem nostram et huiusmodi 5 difficultates hominum resecantes nec exspectata iussione praesidum disposuimus, si facultas pupilli vel adulti usque ad quingentos solidos valeat, defensores civitatum una cum eiusdem civitatis religiosissimo antistite vel apud alias publicas personas, id est magistratus, vel iuridicum Alexandrinae civitatis tutores vel curatores creare, legitima cautela secundum eiusdem constitutionis normam praestanda, videlicet eorum periculo qui eam accipiant.

Impuberes autem in tutela esse naturali iure conveniens 6 est, ut is qui perfectae aetatis non sit alterius tutela regatur. Cum igitur pupillorum pupillarumque tutores negotia gerunt, 7 post pubertatem tutelae iudicio rationem reddunt.

μενοι διοικεῖν ἀλλοτρίαν περιουσίαν. Subsequently a special praetor tutelaris was established for the purpose by M. Aurelius: 'praetorem tutelarem primus fecit, cum antea a consulibus poscerentur, ut diligentius de tutoribus tractaretur' Capitol. Marc. 10: the date of this change is fixed as about 161-9 A.D. by a tablet found in Venice. For the cautio given by tutors see Tit. 24 inf.

§ 4. 'Secundum suam iurisdictionem' is explained by the glossators thus iurisdictio eorum est haec ut puta a patriciis usque ad illustres praefectus urbi tutores dat, ab illustribus usque ad inferiores praetor.' But it seems just as probable that the praetor's functions related only to pupilli whose property fell below a certain maximum value-possibly 500 solidi at least (§ 5) municipal magistrates in the provinces were authorized to appoint when the pupil's fortune was less than this.

§ 5. The reference is to Cod. 1. 4. 30. The iuridicus of Alexandria received the power of appointing tutors from M. Aurelius, Dig. 1. 20: cf. Cod. 1. 57; magistrates of the same name exercised the same functions in Italy (Capitol. Marc. 11) and perhaps elsewhere, Apul. metam. 1. 5, but they seem to have been extinct before the time of Justinian. § 6. See on Tit. 13. 1 supr.

§ 7. For 'negotia gerere' see the note last referred to. On the ward's attaining the age of puberty the tutor could be compelled by the actio tutelae directa to lay before him full accounts of his income and expenditure for the years during which he had administered the property (cf. note on Bk. iii. 27. 2 inf.): condemnation entailed infamia, Bk. iv. 16. 2 inf. Where the charge was one of conversion to his own use the

XXI.

DE AUCTORITATE TUTORUM.

Auctoritas autem tutoris in quibusdam causis necessaria pupillis est, in quibusdam non est necessaria. ut ecce si quid dari sibi stipulentur, non est necessaria tutoris auctoritas: quod si aliis pupilli promittant, necessaria est: namque placuit meliorem quidem suam condicionem licere eis facere etiam sine tutoris auctoritate, deteriorem vero non aliter quam tutore auctore. unde in his causis, ex quibus mutuae obligationes nascuntur, in emptionibus venditionibus, locationibus conductionibus, mandatis, depositis, si tutoris auctoritas non interveniat, ipsi quidem qui cum his contrahunt obligantur, at 1 invicem pupilli non obligantur. Neque tamen hereditatem proper remedy was the actio de rationibus distrahendis, a penal action by which double damages could be recovered, Dig. 26. 7. 55. 1: 27.3. 1.9. Tit. XXI. The administration of property in general is carried on by dispositions such as alienation, contract, release, and so forth; but the functions of a tutor relate in the main only to acts or dispositions by which the ward's property might be diminished: with an act of the ward by which he is merely enriched the tutor need have nothing to do. The most important acts of the former class are alienation and contract: these might (si procuratorem recipiebant ') be the acts of the tutor alone : but if the actus were legitimus the ward must act in person. But whenever the latter attempted to make a disposition by which his proprietary position might be prejudiced, it could confer no rights on other parties unless the tutor 'auctoritatem suam interposuit:' it was this alone that gave the act a full legal character: 'tutoris auctoritas necessaria ... si lege aut legitimo iudicio agant, si se obligent, si civile negotium gerant (e.g. hereditatis aditio, note on § 1) si rem mancipi alienent . . . etiam in rerum nec mancipi alienatione tutoris auctoritate opus est' Ulpian, reg. 11. 27. There were in fact only three cases in which a pupil could be sued on an act of his own which had not been sanctioned by his tutor : (1) for his own delict, Dig. 9. 2. 5. 2; (2) si actio ex re venit, i.e. where the obligation is merely one of restitution, Dig. 44. 7. 46: 13. 6. 32; and (3) where and so far as he had been enriched by the transaction, Dig. 26. 8. 5. pr. He was also bound 'naturaliter' (1) by unilateral contracts, Bk. iii. 29. 3 inf., though the creditor could not assert his claim by exceptio or even by soluti retentio, and (2) by bilateral contracts also, the other party here being able to avail himself of all the ordinary incidents of naturalis obligatio. Thus we must supply a word in the last sentence of this section, and understand it 'at invicem pupilli [civiliter] non obligantur.'

§ 1. The reason of the rule here stated is that hereditas, bonorum

adire neque bonorum possessionem petere neque hereditatem ex fideicommisso suscipere aliter possunt nisi tutoris auctoritate, quamvis lucrosa sit neque ullum damnum habeat. Tutor autem statim in ipso negotio praesens debet auctor 2 fieri, si hoc pupillo prodesse existimaverit. post tempus vero aut per epistulam interposita auctoritas nihil agit. Si inter 3 tutorem pupillumve iudicium agendum sit, quia ipse tutor in rem suam auctor esse non potest, non praetorius tutor ut olim constituitur, sed curator in locum eius datur, quo interveniente iudicium peragitur et eo peracto curator esse desinit.

XXII.

QUIBUS MODIS TUTELA FINITUR.

Pupilli pupillaeque cum puberes esse coeperint, tutela liberantur. pubertatem autem veteres quidem non solum ex annis, sed etiam ex habitu corporis in masculis aestimari volebant. nostra autem maiestas dignum esse castitate tem

possessio, and hereditas fideicommissaria always comprised liabilities as well as rights, and though the latter might more than outbalance the former, yet on the general principle the pupil could incur no liability whatever without his tutor's auctoritas: cf. Seneca, nat. quaest. 2. 49, Dig. 24. 3. 58: 17. 1. 32. The aditio of an inheritance had always been an actus legitimus, an act which by law was required to be personally performed, and which consequently could not be undertaken by the tutor alone on the pupil's behalf. In bonorum possessio, on the contrary, which being a praetorian institution was governed by more liberal rules, free representation was always permitted. By imperial enactment (Cod. 6. 30. 18. 2-4: 8. 18. 6) the tutor was allowed to make aditio for the pupil without any co-operation on the latter's part.

§ 3. Suits in which a pupil was a party might be undertaken by the tutor alone, or by the pupil himself with the former's auctoritas: 'sufficit tutoribus ad plenam defensionem, sive ipsi iudicium suscipiant, sive pupillus ipsis auctoribus... ita tamen, ut pro his, qui fari non possint vel absint, ipsi tutores iudicium suscipiant, pro his autem, qui supra septimum annum aetatis sunt et praesto fuerint, auctoritatem praestent' Dig. 26. 7. 1. 2.

The suit between tutor and ward contemplated in the text is one arising out of other matters than the guardianship, e. g. a will or intestacy under which both claimed to succeed. For the tutor praetorius see Gaius i. 173-187, Cod. 5. 44, and note on Tit. 14. 4 supr.

Tit. XXII. The precise age at which a male pupillus became pubes