with their longer diameters at right angles to the surface of the organ in which they are contained, and thus parallel to the side walls of the cells.

Apothecary. Retail druggist or pharmacist, who deals in drugs and medicines and compounds physicians' prescriptions. In some States he is required to be a graduate of a School of Pharmacy or to pass an examination, and is not allowed to practice medicine. In England they were originally an inferior branch of the medical profession; but, at present, the licentiates of the Apothecaries' Society of London are, by law, on an equality with university graduates. Apothecia. Organs of reproduction of lichens and certain ascomycetous fungi. Also called discocarps.

Apothem. Perpendicular from center to side of a regular polygon: equal to the radius of inscribed circle.

Apotheosis. Deification of a mortal. Apart from the mythological stories of demigods of Greece, the term was employed to denote the assumption of the Roman emperors into the ranks of the gods. This gave occasion to a festival, in which the waxen image of the dead was burned upon a pyre of great splendor; an eagle was let go as the fire ascended, and supposed to carry the soul to heaven. Some sixty, from Julius Cæsar to Constantine, received this honor.

Appalachian Mountains. Eastern mountain system of the U. S., stretching n. e. to s. w. from the St. Lawrence to Alabama. It consists in the main of three members, the Blue Ridge, Appalachian Valley, and Cumberland, or Allegany, plateau. The highest summit in the n. is Mt. Washington, N. H., 6,293 ft.; in the s. Mt. Mitchell, N. C., 6,688 ft.

Appalachian Revolution. Term applied by Prof. Joseph Le Conte to the great geological changes that characterized the end of the Carboniferous era in e. N. America. Among these, the most important were the crumpling of the thick palæozoic strata into anticlines from which the mountains have since been carved by erosion, and the permanent elevation of the region above the sea.

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Appeal. Removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court for review and retrial. In England, till 1819, it designated also an original suit by which a private citizen sought redress for injury inflicted by a criminal act, while at the same time prosecuting for the crown.

Appendicitis. Inflammation of, or in the vicinity of, the vermiform appendix. A tubular offshoot of the large intestine, on the right side of the body, about the diameter of a goose quill, which in some of the lower animals assists in digestion, but in man is useless. Small bodies, as fruit seeds, pieces of bone, small masses of hard fæces, etc., enter its canal and, if they remain sufficiently long, excite an inflammation which gives rise to an abscess which, if it discharges into the abdominal cavity, arouses a peritonitis, nearly always fatal. Often, instead of the pus taking this course, it escapes into the intestines, or bladder, or comes to the surface, and the disease cures itself. The symptoms are at first apt to be obscure, but after a time resolve themselves into pain and tenderness in the right side just above the hip bone, more or less fever, and signs of a deeply seated abscess. Operation, as soon as there is evidence of the presence of pus, is the only form of treatment which affords any hope of cure; it consists in opening through the side and removing the foreign body which gave rise to the trouble. and, if possible, the appendix itself. The mortality in such cases is relatively small, provided the operation is performed sufficiently early. This disease has been known for more than 2,000 years, but its recognition during life became easy only of late, and only since the time of antiseptic surgery has it lost its fatal character. Formerly it was grouped with a number of other diseases under the head of inflammation of the bowels.

Appendicularia. See COPELATE.

Apperception. Action of the mind in constructing its materials (sensations, memories, ideas) into groups or systems; e.g., when one sees an apple, he proceeds upon the apperception of various sensations, such as taste, color, odor, pressure, etc., which are grouped together to give one thing in space.

about them are due to apperception. Technically, it is known as the synthetic function of the mind.

Appetites. Primary and instinctive bodily desires, especially for food and drink, directed toward the preservation of the individual; and the sexual desires, directed toward the preservation of the species.

Appalachian Valley. Middle member of the A. mountain system. First seen in Pa.; it runs s. w. to Ala., with the Blue Ridge on the e. and the Cumberland, or Allegany, plateau on the w. Its surface is broken by numerous narrow, parallel, sinuous ridges. It is drained by a series of rivers, the Susquehanna, Potomac, James, Kanawha and Tennessee.

Appalachicola River. It heads in Ga., flows s., forming part of the boundary between Ga. and Ala., and empties into A. Bay, on w. coast of Fla. Drainage area 18,918 sq. m. Apparent. An adjective much employed by astronomers, as illustrated by the following examples:

The apparent diameter of a heavenly body is the angle at the eye of the observer subtended by the body, and depends upon its actual diameter and distance."

Apparent noon is the instant when the sun is on the meridian, and differs from mean noon by the equation of time.

The apparent place of a star differs from its mean place in consequence of corrections for precession, nutation and aberration.

Apparitions. Those visual sensations, commonly regarded as hallucinatory, of forms and figures not objectively present, but of a distinctness comparable to that of actual sense presentations. The belief that such sensations have an actual objective cause is held by many people, and the whole question is at the present time a subject of active investigation. The main varieties of apparitions may be described as: (1) those of second sight," or visions which occur coincidently with real events at a distance from the subject; (2) ghosts, or the supposed appearance of the spirits of deceased individuals, and (3) the apparitions of so-called "spiritualistic seances."

There are other visual phenomena which may or may not be classed as apparitions, according to the point of view; such, for example, as the dream images of normal life. See also HALLU

CINATIONS.

Appian, 2d century. Alexandrian, author of a Greek work which traced the history of each nation from the time it first came in contact with Rome till its incorporation into the empire. Eleven of his 24 books have come down complete, and parts of others.

military roads; leading first to Capua, later to Beneventum Appian Way. Oldest and most celebrated of the Roman and Brundisium, with branches to all parts of s. Italy; begun and constructed in part by the Censor Appius Claudius Cæcus, 313 B.C. Excavations in 1850-53 reopened the road as far as Albano. The pavement is of large hexagonal blocks of stone, mostly basaltic lava, resting on several different strata of road metal, cemented by lime, under which is the foundation proper.

Apple. Tree of the natural order Rosace, Pyrus malus, native of w. Europe and Central Asia, now widely cultivated.

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Apple of Peru. Nicandra physaloides. plant of the Potato family, native of Peru.

Apples of Sodom. Said by ancient writers to grow near the Dead Sea; fair to look upon, but when pressed or struck, exploding like a puff-ball and leaving in the hand but shreds of the rind and a few fibers; the Calotropis procera of

botanists.

Appomattox Court House, VA. Scene of Lee's surrender to Grant, April 9, 1865.

Apportionment. Distribution of a subject-matter, whether private rights of property, private liabilities, taxes, or political representatives. In the U. S. the basis of representation is settled by a decennial census.

Apposition. Method of increase in size of starch grains by the repeated deposition of layers of starch, or to cell-walls by the layers of cellulose.

Appraisal. Valuation of property by an authorized person, as in case of the goods of one deceased, or of goods set apart to a widow, or property exempt from execution.

Appreciation. In economics, increase in the value of one form of currency or bullion relatively to another existing form,

or to other articles of value.

Apprehension. Psychologically, the same as perception; distinguished from comprehension or understanding, as perception is from conception.

Apprentice. One who is bound by an indenture to serve an individual or company for a specified period, and acquire a knowledge of the art or business of his master. Apprenticeship had its origin in the system of trades that prevailed in the Middle Ages. Only those were free to exercise a trade who had served as its regulations prescribed. The system was rendered effective by prohibiting the sale at the great halls established for this purpose of all goods not made by persons who had served their regular apprenticeship, which in many trades was a term of seven years. The system has greatly declined since the division of employments and the introduction of labor-saving machinery, as many learn only one branch or a few branches of a trade, and in a much shorter period.

In common law the contract was usually a written instrument under seal: many statutes require it to be an indenture. It is not assignable.

Approaches. Series of trenches, conventionally three in number, whose general direction is toward the salient of the fortification to be attacked. They zigzag across the capitals, gaining ground to the front, and are connected at convenient intervals by other trenches parallel to the front of attack. They serve as means of approach to positions so near the work that a successful assault may be delivered by the besiegers, or that breaching batteries for its reduction may be established. Approbation. See APPROVAL.

Appropriation. In economics, reduction to private property of natural objects previously common, especially the natural instruments of production, such as land, water power, and mines.

Appropriation Bills. Laws authorizing the expenditure of money for specified purposes. Those of the U. S. are founded on estimates made by the heads of the different departments, sent to the House, and referred to a committee on appropriations, which examines them and reports to the House for its action. Usually they are passed by that body without many changes, and then go to the Senate for similar action.

Approval. Sentiment which recognizes certain actions or feelings as right.

Approximation. Obtaining values constantly nearer a result not exactly obtainable.

Appui, POINT D'. Point upon which a line of troops is to be formed, or by which it is to be marched; also, advantageous points, such as fortified posts, villages, etc., which will enable an army to secure its position for offensive or defensive movements.

Appulse. Very near approach of one heavenly body to another, as seen projected on the celestial sphere.

Appurtenance. That which is connected with another thing as an incident thereof, as a right of way in case of land, or the equipment in case of a ship.

Apraxia. Pathological state in which the power of recognition of the use and import of objects is lost or impaired; usually associated with APHASIA (q.v.).

Apricot. Bushy tree, Prunus armeniaca, of the Rose family, native of Armenia and widely cultivated for its fruit,

April. Called Aprilis by the Romans from aperire, to open; the month of opening buds, sacred to Venus. The riotous Floralia was held in this month.

April Fools' Day. Probably originates in New Year's Day of ancient Persia, which fell on the Vernal Equinox. It was a feast of boundless hilarity and absurd rites. In Rome it became the Saturnalia, and in the Middle Ages w. Europe celebrated it as the Feast of Fools.

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca).

to mean independent of experience. Its two proper meanings A Priori. Generally contrasted with a posteriori and taken are: first, deductive argument where the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, and represents what may be prior in time, not to all experience, but to such as would verify the conclusion; second, the idealistic meaning which denotes what is constitutional to the subject of knowledge, as the laws of thought, which condition all knowledge.

Apron of a Dam. Sloping surface at the foot of the dam to receive the fall of water and prevent it from injuring the

foundation; made of timber, or, in the best constructions, of stone. The figure shows the Dunning dam at Scranton, Pa. Apse. Curved or polygonal recess covered with a semi

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mostly to women to kill their husbands. She was executed in Naples 1719. La Sparza, another female dealer in poison, was executed in Rome 1659. More than 600 murders by poison occurred during this epoch in Italy.

Aqua Vitæ. Distilled spirits. The alchemists thought life was prolonged by their use.

Aqueduct. Canal, conduit, or very large pipe through which water flows. The Roman aqueducts were built on masonry arcades, so as to allow the water to flow with uniform slope from the reservoir to the point of supply. Modern aqueducts are sometimes so constructed, and sometimes are below the line of uniform slope, thus being under pressure like a pipe. The Greeks used underground conduits. Eupalinus cut a tunnel at Samos ab. 625 B.C., 4,200 ft. long, 8 ft. broad and 8 ft. high, having a water channel 3 ft. broad and 11 ells deep. At Athens two water conduits passed under the bed of the river Ilissus. Of another Athenian underground aqueduct there are 60 air-shafts remaining, 4 to 5 ft. in diameter. The most imposing ruin of a Roman arcade aqueduct is that at Nimes

Aqueduct at Nimes.

in s. France, which rises in three tiers of arches to a ht. of 180 ft. and has an upper length in crossing the valley of the Gard of 882 ft. The channel resting on these arches is 4 ft. broad, 7 ft. high, roofed over with thick stone slabs, and still covered within with the Roman cement which was used to line all such conduits.

Rome in the time of Frontinus, who wrote on its water supply A.D. 97, had 9 aqueducts, aggregating 250 m. in length, which furnished ab. 137.000.000 gals. per day, or ab. 50 gals, for each person. Later the number of aqueducts was increased to 14, which brought to Rome the water of 18 springs or rivers, distant from 74 to 44 m. in direct lines; the total length of these was 359 m., of which 55 m. were on masonry arcades. One of these, the Aqua Claudia, is still in use as a part of the present water supply of Rome. The first large aqueduct in the U. S. was that completed 1841 for supplying N. Y. from the Croton River. It was 40 m. long, of a horseshoe form, 7 ft. wide by 8 ft. high, cost $8,600,000, and supplied 60,000.000 gals. per day. This is still in use, crossing the Harlem River over High Bridge. In 1890 a second Croton aqueduct was completed, 33 m. long and ab. 12 ft. in diameter; it crosses the Harlem River by an inverted siphon in a tunnel, and has a capacity of 320,000,000 gals. per day.

Washington, Baltimore, Boston, and other cities obtain their water supply through aqueducts or tunnels which have been constructed at great expense. The amount of water furnished by an aqueduct depends not only on its size, but upon its slope or grade. The slope is usually such that the mean velocity of the water is 2 or 3 ft. per second. A steel pipe 48 inches in diameter and 21 m. long was built in 1892 for the supply of Newark, N. J.

Aqueduct Bridge. Bridge carrying water pipes, or aqueduct over a stream or valley. The High Bridge, carrying the old Croton aqueduct over the Harlem River at New York, is a beautiful masonry structure having 15 arches, 8 of which are of 60 feet span. A suspension bridge at Pittsburg, Pa., has 7 spans, each of 160 feet, the cables carrying the aqueduct being 7 inches in diameter. The Wissahickon bridge at Philadelphia has 4 spans of 166 feet, the water passing through the horizontal upper chords of the trusses, which are 20 inches in diameter. The Rock Creek arch at Washington, D. C.. is formed of cast-iron pipes 48 inches in diameter. through which the water of the Potomac aqueduct flows. The Vanne aque

duct for the supply of Paris has numerous arched bridges made of concrete.

Aqueous Fusion. Liquefaction of chemical crystals in water of crystallization.

Aqueous Humor. Thin watery fluid contained in the anterior chamber of the eye, or the space between the posterior surface of the cornea and the crystalline lens.

Aqueous Rock. Composed of material deposited from

water.

Aqueous Theory. Promulgated by Werner of Freiburg, attributing the formation of all strata to the action of water. See WERNER.

class Angiosperma and sub-class Dicotyledones, comprising 4 Aquifoliaceæ. Natural family of flowering plants of the genera and ab. 180 species, distributed throughout all parts of the earth; also known as Ilicinec, and popularly as the Holly family.

Aquila. See EAGLE.

Aquila. Jewish Christian tent-maker who, with his wife Priscilla, or Prisca, befriended St. Paul at Corinth, and instructed Apollos.

Aquila, OF PONTUS, ab. 130. Originally a heathen, he became a Jew, tr. O. T. into Greek, and directed the rebuilding of Jerusalem under Hadrian.

Aquila Romanus, 3d century. Rhetorician, author of a treatise De Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis.

Aquileia. City of Istria, near the head of the Adriatic; founded 181; destroyed by Attila 452.

Aquinas, THOMAS, 1225-1274. "The Angelic Doctor," b. near Naples. He joined the order of St. Dominic, studied under Albertus Magnus at Cologne and Paris, lectured at Paris and at various Italian universities, and was engaged in many important missions, but refused all preferment. He occupies the highest place in scholastic philosophy, both as to influence and real ability. He distinguished two sources of knowledge, Faith and Reason, and aimed to unite them in his Summa Theologia, which has dominated the teachings of the R. C. Ch. to this day.

Aquitaine. Province of Gaul, named by the Romans; including first the Iberian territory between the Pyrenees and the Garonne; extended to the Loire by Augustus, subject successively to West Goths and Franks; independent duchy under Merovingians; yielded to Charlemagne, but again became independent; united to France 1137, and to England 1152, in both cases through marriage; finally restored to France 1451.

indicates, from Saracenic art; composed of imitations or conArabesque. Kind of ornament not derived, as the name ventionalizations both of natural and artifi

cial objects, having nothing in common with Arabian ornament except a symmetrical arexhumed at Pompeii. It is referred to disrangement. The earliest examples are those paragingly by Vitruvius and Pliny. Grotesque ornamentation is found in early Christian and in Byzantine art; its revival dates from the 15th century in Italy, when it probably came to be known as arabesque, from a confusion of it with Saracenic decoration.

Arabia. S. w. country of Asia; a peninsula, rudely quadrilateral in form; area ab. 1,200,000 sq. m. Its surface is a moderately elevated table-land, gradually rising eastward, with low mountains along its w. border and higher ones on the e. It is in great part a desert, with small fertile sections among the bordering mountains, and in the interior a large region capable of cultivation. It consists of three main divisions: A. Petræa, in the n. w., including the Sinaitic peninsula; A. Deserta, the Syrian desert and part of the interior; A. Felix, the rest of the peninsula, especially the fertile belt on the w. coast. The inhabitants are of Semitic stock, allied to the Hebrews; those of lasted from 1000 to 400 B.C., and, alongside of an Abyssinian A. Deserta were nomads. The kingdom of Saba seems to have kingdom, to A. D. 300 or later. Christianity spread widely at an early day, existing side by side with Sabæism, and became a state religion 525. Mohammed effected a total revolution 622. Pop. ab. 5,000,000,

Arabesque Panel. (From the Mosque

at Cordova.)

Arabian Architecture. The Mahometan building not only of Arabia itself, but of Egypt, which is much more exten