the sun are brought to a focus at the principal heat focus of the lens. The term is also applied to those concave mirrors of quicksilvered glass, or burnished metal, which condense the sun's rays into a similar focus. A passage in Aristophanes' Clouds shows that the ancients used the refracting burningglasses; Pliny and Lactantius also mention them. The burning-mirrors of Archimedes and Proclus are famous: the latter burned the navy of Vitellius, who was besieging Byzantium, and the former set fire to the Roman fleet at the siege of Syracuse. In mediæval and modern days the most notable burningglasses have been made by Settala, Vilette, Tschirnhausen, Buffon, Trudaine and Parker. The latter fused 10 grains of slate in 2 seconds.

Burnley. Manufacturing borough of Lancashire, on the Brun, 20 m. n. of Manchester. Pop., 1891, 87,058.

Burnouf, EUGENE, 1801-1852. French orientalist, author of valuable studies in Hindu and Persian. Hist. Buddhism,

1845.-His father, JEAN LOUIS, and his cousin, EMILE LOUIS, also distinguished themselves by philological researches.

Burns and Scalds. Injuries inflicted by fire, heated bodies, corrosive substances, and hot water or steam, the latter causing scalds, and consisting in the carbonization of the tissues or coagulation of their albuminoids. Death results from the shock, exhaustion of the healing of a large amount of surface, destruction of enough surface to interfere with the excretion by the skin of the waste products of the organism, or ulceration of the stomach or intestines-a phenomenon not well understood. Deforming scars nearly always result, and the principal part of the immediate treatment consists in protecting the parts by oleaginous bodies. Slight burns may be simply covered by cloths dipped in a strong solution of baking soda. Burns, ANTHONY, ab. 1830-1862. Fugitive slave, whose arrest in Boston, May 25, 1854, caused great excitement.

Burns, JABEZ, D.D., 1805-1876. English Baptist; prolific writer.

Burns, JAMES DRUMMOND, 1823-1864. Scottish sacred poet. Burns, JOHN, b. 1858. English labor organizer, leader in the London dock strikes of 1889, M. P. 1892. He visited the U. S. 1894.

221

Burr Truss. Wooden bridge-truss, first built 1804 by Theodore Burr, in which the inclined braces take compression and the vertical posts take tension; usually stiffened by an arched

Burr Truss Bridge.

structure in the U.S. It has been little built since 1850, iron beam. The bridge at Waterford, N. Y., is the oldest wooden trusses having taken its place.

Bursa. Small sac, containing fluid, found in many parts of tendons glide. the body, which forms a sort of pad over which muscles and

Bursa Choroidei. Marsupium, or pecten, in the anterior part of the vitreous chamber of the eye of birds. Bursa Entiana. the pylorus in sharks. of cæca at this place.

Swollen sac on the intestine beyond
In higher fishes there is usually a set

Bursa Fabricii. Cloacal glands in birds. Bursa Genitales. Genital pouches into which the eggs of Ophiurians pass on their way from the ovaries to the exterior.

Burseraceæ. Natural family of flowering plants of the class Angiosperma and sub-class Dicotyledones, comprising 13 genera and ab. 275 species, distributed throughout the tropical regions of the whole earth.

Burstenbinder, ELIZABETH ("E. WERNER"). German novelist, known in America by Mrs. A. L. Wister's translations. Banned and Blessed, 1883; St. Michael, 1886; Alpine Fay, 1889.

Burton, JOHN HILL, LL.D., 1809-1881. Scottish historian and bibliographer. Life of Hume, 1846; History of Scotland, 1853-67; Book-Hunter, 1862; Queen Anne's Reign, 1881.

Burton, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS, 1821-1890. English ex

Burnside, AMBROSE EVERETT, 1824-1881. General of U. S. Vols. 1861-65; defeated at Fredericksburg, Va., Dec. 13, 1862, while commanding Army of the Potomac; Gov. of R. I. 1866

69: U. S. Senator from 1875.

Burnt-Offering. Jewish sacrifice, answering to the causts of paganism, the victim being wholly consumed. Burr, AARON, 1756-1836. U. S. Senator from N. Y. 1791-97, Vice-Pres. 1801-5. He killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel 1804; formed mysterious plans, probably involving an attempt on Texas or Mexico, with the s. w. Territories; was arrested Jau. 1807 in Mississippi, tried for treason at Richmond in May, and acquitted. After years of wandering, he returned to N. Y. 1812, but public life never reopened to him.

Burr, ENOCH FITCH, D.D., b. 1818. Pastor at Lyme, Conn., from 1850. Ecce Cœlum, 1867; Pater Mundi, 1869; Ad Fidem, 1871; Aleph, 1891.

Burr, GEORGE LINCOLN, b. 1857. Prof. at Cornell 1892. Literature of Witchcraft, 1890; Charlemagne, 1892.

Burr, WILLIAM HUBERT, C.E., b. 1851. Prof. of mechanics in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1876-84; prof. civil engineer ing in Lawrence Scientific School 1891-93, and in Columbia Col

lege since 1893. Roof and Bridge Trusses, 1879; Materials of Engineering, 1883.

Burrage, HENRY SWEETSER, D.D., b. 1837. American author and journalist. Anabaptists in Switzerland,1883; Baptist Hymn Writers, 1888.

Bur-Reed. Plants of genus Sparganium, natives of the northern hemisphere, growing in swamps.

Burrill, ALEXANDER M., 1807-1869. Practice of Sup. Ct. of N. Y., 1840; Law Dictionary, 1850; Assignments, 1853.

Bury. Manufacturing borough of Lancashire, on the Irwell, 9 m. n.w. of Manchester. It contains manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, paper and iron; there are large coalmines in the vicinity. Pop., 1891, 57,206.

Busaco, PORTUGAL. Scene of Wellington's defeat of the French under Massena, Sept. 27, 1810.

Busby, THOMAS, Mus. D., 1755-1838. English composer; author of a dictionary, grammar and history of music, 1786-1819. Büsch, JOHANN GEORG, 1728-1800. Teacher at Hamburg. History of Trade, 1781.

pher. Description of the Earth, 1754; Magazine of History and Büsching, ANTON FRIEDRICH, 1724-1793. German geograGeography, 25 vols., 1767-93.

of Mohammed, 1832; Hebrew Grammar, 1835; O. T. CommenBush, GEORGE, 1796-1859. Prof. Univ. N. Y. 1831-47. Life taries, 8 vols., 1840-48; tr. Swedenborg's diary, 1845.

Bush-Apple. Achras australis. Small tree of the natural family Sapotaceœ, bearing an edible fruit.

Bush-Brown, H. K., b. 1857. American sculptor. Most important works, the colossal Indian Buffalo Hunt shown at

Burroughs, JOHN, b. 1837. American author. Walt Whit man, 1867; Wake Robin, 1871; Birds and Poets, 1877; Fresh Fields, 1884.

Meade, a commission for the State of Pennsylvania, to be placed on the field of Gettysburg.

Bush-Clover. Plants of genus Lespedeza, natural family Leguminosa, natives of Asia and N. America.

Bushel. Measure of capacity adopted in England 1826 and in N. Y. 1829, containing 8 gallons and known as the Imperial bushel. It contains 80 lbs. of water (temperature 62° F., barometric pressure 30 in.), or a capacity of 2218.2 cubic inches. The old Winchester bushel, adopted as the U. S. standard, contains 2150.42 cub. in., or 35.327 liters. The weight of a bushel of wheat is fixed at 60 lbs. in most of the States, but the weight of other staples locally varies. Bushel of beans weighs 62 lbs. in N. Y. Wheat, peas, clover-seed, potatoes, 60 lbs., Indian corn, 58 lbs.; rye, 56 lbs.; flax-seed, 55 lbs.; buckwheat, barley, 48 lbs.; timothy-seed, 44 lbs.; oats, 32 lbs.

Bushel. Game played in n. England by two persons, each with three men or pieces, upon a diagram in the form of a square or rectangle, divided into eight equal triangles by intersecting lines. The object is to block the opponent's pieces. Similar games are played by children in e. Asia from Korea to Siam.

Masonry.

compared with the Australians, who, like them, represent the survivors of primitive races.

Bushnell, DAVID, 1742-1824. American inventor of submarine explosives 1776-78.

Bushnell, HORACE, D.D., LL.D., 1802-1876. New England Nature and the Supernatural, 1858; Vicarious Sacrifice, 1865; theologian. Christian Nurture, 1847; God in Christ, 1849; Forgiveness and Law, 1874. His influence was in line with that of Maurice and F. W. Robertson, in turning religious thought from a traditional and legal to a moral and spiritual

basis.

Bushwhackers. Guerillas and predatory deserters in Mo. and the s. w. 1861-65.

ral family Caprifoliaceae, native of n. e. N. America.

Bushings. In pipe-fitting, device by which a hole in a large fitting can be so reduced as to make it possible to screw in a smaller pipe. In machine construction, ring or cylinder fitted into a hole, which is thus reduced in size and caused to fit a rod or pin which is to work there. The advantages of this construction are that the bushing can be easily and cheaply renewed, as it wears, without necessitating the renewal of the whole organ, which has not worn at all; and, secondly, the bushing can be made of some metal peculiarly adapted to withstand wear. Machinery bushings are made of steel, or of brass or of bronze. Sometimes they are so made that, as they grow larger by wear, the lost motion can be taken up by compression between nuts in a tapering hole.

Bushmen (SAAN). Aborigines of the Cape Colonies of Africa; perhaps originally they covered much of S. Africa. They are spare and short, averaging 44 ft. high; those near Lake Ngami are taller. In color they are a clear brown; their hair is sparse, short and coarse. Grease and dirt are used as a covering for the body in place of clothes. They are nomadic and troglodytic, construct no dwellings, except sometimes rude nests in the bushes, whence the name. A few pelts of sheepskin serve for bed-quilt. The only implement is a stone with a hole in it, through which passes a stick, used for digging up roots. Tattooing is not practiced. They eat reptiles and vermin, and go for days without eating, then gormandize for a while. They hunt and war with poisoned arrows, which they shoot with great precision. They have spears, and use them in hunting large game, which they drive into covered pits.

The leaves are used for thatching huts.
Bussu. Manicaria saccifera. Palm, native of n. S. America.

Bussy-Rabutin, ROGER, COUNT DE, 1618-1693. French writer of memoirs. Histoire Amoureuse des Gaules.

Bustamente, ANASTASIO, 1780-1853. Vice-pres. of Mexico 1829, pres. 1830-32 and 1837-41; defeated by Santa Anna and banished 1833 and 1842.-His relative, CARLOS MARIA, 1774-1848, pub. books on Iturbide and Santa Anna, and a Hist. Mexican Revolution, 6 v., 1823-32.

Bustards. Birds of the family Otide, of large size, resembling the American Turkey, and esteemed as much for food. They have rather long, stout legs with three toes, the hind one absent. They run and fly well. Their food is vegetable, gathered on the steppes. They are becoming extinct in many parts of Europe; 35 species have been described from Africa, Otis tarda is the Great Bustard of Europe. It has a large pouch two occur in Europe, many in Asia, and some in Australia. of the oesophagus, beneath the chin, which is inflated during the breeding season. O. tetras is the Little Bustard of Europe, about as large as the Grouse. Houbara macqueenii of western Asia is hunted by means of camels circling round a flock until within shooting-distance. The plumage harmonizes so perfectly with the sand that they are hard to see.

Butane. CH. CH2.CH,.CH,. Gaseous hydrocarbon of the marsh gas group, occurring in solution in crude petroleum. There are two hydrocarbons of this formula. Butcher-Birds.

Different members of the Laniidae,

Bushmen's Encampment.

The principal weapon is a club. There are no chiefs; women are courted and mated temporarily, much as among certain monogamous animals. The strongest males secure the finest women, leaving the old women to the boys. They are crafty and cruel, have a gift for music, and ornament their caves with painting. They are passionately fond of dancing, accompanying it with drumming. They believe in magic, and worship the dead. In their language there are no verbs, scarcely nouns, and no way of counting. Words are monosyllabic, guttural and gurgling, with clicks and smacking sounds similar to those made by apes in a menagerie. Each locality or tribe has a fundamentally different language from its neighbors. They are inferior, though related, to the Hottentots, and to be

Butcher-birds (L. excubitor and L. collurio). especially the shrikes of genus Lanius. They impale insects, mice, birds, etc., which they have caught for food, upon thorns,

223

Butine. CH2:CH.CH:CH2. Bpt. 20° C. Liquid with a low boiling point, at common temperatures a gas. Present in illuminating gas. Unites with bromine to form a crystalline tetrabromide.

Butler, ALBAN, 1711-1773. English R. C. divine, prof. at Douay and pres. St. Omer. His Lives of the Saints, 1756-59, were continued by his nephew, CHARLES, 1750-1832, author of Hora Biblica, 1797, and Memoirs of English Catholics, 1819-21. Butler, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 1818-1893. Mass. lawyer, general of U. S. Volunteers 1861-65; in command at New Orleans 1862; attacked Fort Fisher, N. C., Dec. 1864; M. C. 1867-75 and 1877-79; Gov. of Mass. 1883; Greenback candidate for the Presidency 1884. Autobiography, 1892.-Another of this name, 1795-1858, was U. S. Attorney-Gen. 1833-38, law prof. Univ. N. Y., and father of WM. ALLEN B.

Butler, MRS. ELIZABETH SOUTHERDEN (THOMPSON), b. ab. 1844, m. 1877. English painter of military subjects, as The RollCall, at Windsor Castle, and Rorke's Drift, 1881.

Butler, GEORGE BERNARD, N.A. 1873, S.A.A. 1880, b. 1838. American portrait painter.

Butler, JOSEPH, D.C.L., 1692-1752. Bp. of Bristol 1738, of Durham 1750. His Analogy of Religion, 1736, has been widely used as a text-book. His Sermons, 1726, were called by Dr. Chalmers the most precious repository of sound ethical principles

extant in any language."

Butler, SAMUEL, 1612-1680. English satirical poet, author of Hudibras, 1663-78.

Butler, WILLIAM ALLEN, b. 1825. American satirical poet. Nothing to Wear, 1857; Two Millions, 1858; also a Life of Van Buren, 1862.

Butler, WILLIAM ARCHER, 1814-1848. Prof. Trinity Coll., Dublin, 1837. His Sermons, 1849-56, and Ancient Philosophy, 1856, are highly rhetorical.

Butte City. Capital of Silver Bow co., Montana, center of a rich mining region; settled 1864. Pop., 1890, 10,723.

Butter. Chemically a mixture of triglycerides of fat acids, mainly butyric, capronic, caprylic, and caprinic acids, which are volatile, and myristic, palmitic and stearic acids, which are non-volatile. If milk or cream be agitated at a temperature between 47 and 64° F., the globules of fat will gather into lumps or grains, carrying with them some water and a small amount of the albuminous matter of the milk. If the temperature is too low, butter will not form, because the fat globules are then too hard to stick together; if too high, agitation serves only to break the globules up into still smaller size. Butter of the best quality should be of a golden-yellow color, of granular texture when broken, and of a mild, pleasant characteristic flavor. The moisture in it should be free from milkiness and contain no undissolved salt. Butter should contain about 85 per cent fats, 12 per cent moisture, and 3 per cent ash, salt, casein, etc. It melts at from 92° to 95° F.

Butter-and-Eggs. Linaria vulgaris. Yellow-flowered plant of the natural family Scrophulariaceae, native of Europe, but widely diffused as a weed; known also as Toad-flax and Ransted-weed. See SNAPDRAGON.

Buttercup. Large-flowered species of the genus Ranunculus; widely distributed group of plants.

Butterfly. See PAPILIONIDAE and RHOPALOCERA. Butterfly-Pea. Showy-flowered plants of the genera Centrosema and Clitoria, natural family Leguminosa; natives

of e. America.

ocar nuciferum, a large tree of the Camellia family, whose seeds are an article of commerce and known also as Souari nuts. Butter of Antimony. See ANTIMONY TRICHLORIDE. Butter-Tree. In India, Bassia butyracea and B. latifolia. Trees of the natural family Sapotacea, whose seeds yield a thick oil. In w. tropical Africa, Butyrospermum Parkii and Pentadesma butyracea; in s. e. Africa, Combretum butyraceum. Butterweed. Senecio lobatus. Yellow-flowered plant of the natural family Compositae, native of the s.w. States. Butterwort. Species of the genus Pinguicula, small plants of the natural family Lentibulariaceae, widely diffused.

Butterworth, HEZEKIAH, b. 1839. American author, long an editor of the Youth's Companion. Zigzag Journeys, 12 v.,1878-90.

Butt-Joint. Formed by two iron or steel plates which butt squarely against another and are connected by one or two cover-plates riveted upon them. It is more efficient than the common lap-joint.

English navigator who

Button, SIR THOMAS.

sailed to discover the N. W. passage May, 1612, wintered in Hudson's Bay, and explored the coast of Southampton Island.

Butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris).

Button. Studs and buttons were worn as ornaments in the 14th century. In the 16th century, the use of buttons was extended, but they were handmade and expensive. Cloth covered buttons were used early in the 17th century, and inlaid and steel buttons in the 18th century, to be succeeded by gilt buttons. Boulton in 1745 improved the manufacture of these metallic buttons by machinery, and Sanders, early in the present century, made metallic buttons, covered with cloth, his son in 1825 introducing the canvas tuft instead of the metallic shank. Horn buttons were made in 1777. Buttons are now made of a great variety of materials, wood, metal, vulcanized rubber, porcelain, motherof-pearl, vegetable ivory, etc. In England, Birmingham has the largest trade. France, Germany and Austria by their cheaper labor have become large producers. At Prague, glass and porcelain buttons are largely made. Great ingenuity has been exercised in the machinery by which they are produced. In U. S. Williston made cloth covered buttons at Easthampton, Mass., in 1848. The chief manufactories are in New York and Philadelphia.

Button-Bush. Cephalanthus occidentalis. N. American shrub of the natural family Rubiaceae, growing in swamps.

Button-Tree. Conocarpus erecta. W. Indian tree of the natural family Combretaceae, bearing its small flowers in round heads.

Button-Weed. Plants of the genus Spermacoce, natives of warın regions, natural family Rubiaceae.

Buttonwood. Platanus occidentalis. Very large tree of the natural family Platanaceae, native of N. America; known also as Plane-tree and American Sycamore.

Buttress. A pier of masonry built against a wall to withstand a pressure from within. It is most commonly used to resist the thrust of an arch or vault, but may also be employed under the principal beam of a roof. In Gothic architecture

Butter Machines. Recently invented, to separate the cream from the milk and make it into butter at one operation by means of centrifrugal force. They are still in the experimental stage of development. One form is called the butterextractor, the other, the butter-accumulator.

Buttermilk. Fluid which separates in the process of churning; used extensively as an article of diet; useful in Bright's disease and diabetes, and for infants. It contains ab. 11 per cent of solids, ab. one quarter being lactic acid, which renders it easy of digestion.

Butternut. Juglaus cinerea. Large tree of the Walnut

breadth, they were diminished from the bottom by massive offsets, which were richly molded, and they were crowned with pinnacles.

Butyl. CH,.CH,.CH2.CH,-. Group C,H,-, combined with hydroxyl in butyl alcohol, with bromine in butyl bromide, etc.

Hydrate derived from the hydrocarbon butane; liquid of peButyl Alcohol. CH,.CH,.CH,.CH, OH. Bpt. 106° C. culiar odor, present to some extent in fusel oil; called normal butyl alcohol. Three other forms are known: iso, pseudo and tertiary.

Butylene, or BUTENE. CH,.CH,.CH: CH,. Bpt. -5° C. Gaseous hydrocarbon which combines readily with bromine. Isomeric forms are known, called pseudobutylene and isobutylene.

Butyric Acid. CH,.CH,.CH.COOH. Bpt. 163° C. Mon

the dome, but the Byzantine buildings present an entirely different aspect from the Roman, mainly because the builders discarded the Grecian architectural forms, which in Rome had been employed as decorations, and developed the ornamentation of their buildings out of the actual construction, and declassicized all their details. The principal remains of Byzantine architecture are domed churches, either circular or rectangular in plan, churches roofed with slabs of stone connecting the arches, and wooden-roofed churches following the plan of the basilica, with nave, aisles and apse. Byzantine building spread rapidly through Greece and Asia Minor, and exerted a powerful

225

Mosque of St. Sophia, Constantinople. influence upon the building of the western shore of the Adriatic, notably in the case of St. Mark's in Venice and San St.

and Asia is ultimately derived from it. In a very degenerated form it has become the style of the Russo-Greek church.

Byzantine Art. Of the East-Roman period, dating from the 5th century. It still survives in Russia and the Levant, and was not displaced in Italy till the 14th century. The figure design is elongated and lifeless; a traditional religious style in which nature is ignored, controlled largely by the methods natural to MOSAICS (q.v.), in which its best works were done.

Byzantine Empire. See EASTERN EMPIRE.

Byzantine Historians. Those who treated of the events of the Eastern or Greek Empire, whose capital was Constantinople. PROCOPIUS (q.v.), d. ab.565, was the greatest. Then follows a long list, the chief being Agathias, 536-580; Menander Protector, ab.581; Theophilactus, d. ab.628; Joannes of Epiphaneia, from the same reign; the Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who reigned 911-959, and his contemporary Genesius; Joannes Cameniata; Leo Diaconus in 10th century; Nicephorus Bryennius, son-in-law of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus; Anna Comnena; Joannes Cinnamus in 12th century; Nicetas Acominatus, 13th century; Georgius Acropolita, 12201282; Georgius Pachymeres; Nicephoras Gregoras; the Emperor John Cantacuzenus; Joannes Cananus; Joannes Anagnostes; Michael Ducas, who wrote of the fall of Constantinople. Other historians and chroniclers swell the list. The best edition of these works is that pub. at Bonn in 48 vols., begun by Niebuhr, 1828-1855.

Byzantium. Town on Thracian Bosphorus, founded by Megarians 667 B.C.; taken successively by Medes, Athenians, and Spartans; destroyed 196; refounded by Constantine 324: dedicated May, 330, and renamed Constantinople.

Bzowski, or BZOVIUS, ABRAHAM, 1567-1637. Polish Ch. historian, who added 9 vols., 1616, to Baronius' Annals.