previously published how great were Spinoza's obligations to Descartes. For instance, his account of the affections in the Brief Treatise' follows Descartes almost slavishly; while his theory of the affections in the 'Ethics' so little resembles the theory out of which it was developed, that he can speak of Descartes as having merely exhibited in treating of the passions "his own singular ingenuity and acuteness." There is no doubt that Spinoza received from Descartes the definition of substance, such a conception of two substances derived from and dependent on God-viz., spirit or thought, and matter or extension -as was capable of easy conversion into the conception of their being merely affections of one infinite substance, and other notions of the utmost significance in his system. It only requires to be remembered that these notions entered into a mind already possessed with others which necessarily and powerfully influenced them. There is no doubt that he received from Descartes the mathematical method of philosophical exposition. It only requires to be remembered that this method was not essential to his philosophy, and was only employed by him after his system had been substantially constituted; that the secret of his doctrine must not be sought for in the mathematical method, or in any "particular mathematical image."

The recent discoveries also show clearly that Spinoza's system was very slowly and gradually developed, and passed through various phases in its author's mind before it was elaborated into the shape which it assumes in the 'Ethics.' It is true that Spinoza died at the early age of forty-four, and that his Ethics' were ready for the press two years before his death; but the ' Brief Treatise,' which traverses almost the whole ground afterwards

surveyed in the 'Ethics,' was certainly written not less than seventeen years before his death, and probably more; so that fifteen years at least, and perhaps twenty or twentyone years, intervened between the first written sketch and the final form of the 'Ethics,' during the whole of which time the strenuous and incessant work of Spinoza's life was the elaboration of a philosophy of which all the main features and essential principles were apprehended by him from the commencement. The Brief Treatise' and the Ethics' are the two extreme terms in the growth of the philosophy of Spinoza; and although in the course of that growth scarcely a single thought escaped modification, still, as the growth had been a continuous and consistent self-development, even its two extreme stages correspond in all their features as the countenance of the adult man to that of the child. It is not yet possible, however, to trace clearly and certainly the process of growth from the one of these terms to the other. It has not yet even been determined beyond doubt in what order the intervening works were composed. In the absence of direct testimony this can only be done by careful examination of their contents,-by a delicate, subtle, subjective kind of criticism, very apt to lead different inquirers to different and discordant results. In fact, the order of the composition of the works has to be determined from the course of the development of the thought, and the course of the development of the thought from the order of the composition of the works, with no external help except what is furnished by the letters arranged and studied chronologically. There are internal grounds for supposing that the fragment on the "Improvement of the Mind" was written immediately after the Brief Treatise,' the 'Theologico-Political Trea

tise' next in order, then the 'Exposition of Cartesianism and Metaphysical Reflections,' and so that these represent the successive stages through which the thought of Spinoza has to be traced in its progress from the time when it referred everything to the unity of nature to the time when it referred everything to the unity of substance --from the Brief Treatise' to the Ethics;' but the reasons for arranging these works in the order indicated are merely probabilities, and some of them very feeble probabilities.

For a

The literature regarding Spinoza is enormous. general view of it consult Ueberweg's History of Philosophy,' vol. ii. pp. 56-60 (Eng. tr.) and, if still fuller information is desired, Van der Linde's B. Spinoza Bibliographie' (1871). The recently published monograph of Theodore Camerer-Die Lehre Spinoza's'-is an extremely thorough and able work. The same may be said of the treatises of F. Pollock, Dr Martineau, and Principal Caird. The best English translation of the works of Spinoza is that of R. H. M. Elwes, in 2 vols., London, 1883.

NOTE XXXIX., page 377.

MODERN GERMAN PANTHEISM.

In my 'Philosophy of History in Europe' I have given some account of the philosophies of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, and literary references which may be useful to those who are engaged in their study.

The collected edition of Fichte's work by his son is in eight volumes. His 'Popular Writings' have been translated into English by Dr William Smith; his 'Science

of Knowledge' and 'Science of Rights' by A. E. Kroeger. His philosophy is ably described in Kuno Fischer's 'Geschichte der Neuern Philosophie,' Bd. v., in Harms' 'Philosophie seit Kant,' and in the special works of Busse and Löwe, &c. The best account, perhaps, of his religious doctrine is Fr. Zimmer's 'Joh. Gottl. Fichte's Religionsphilosophie' (1878).

The complete edition of Schelling's works is in fourteen volumes. There is a careful exposition of the successive modifications of his doctrine of the Absolute in the two last articles of the second volume of Hoffmann's 'Philosophische Schriften.' Several of his writings have been translated in the 'Journal of Speculative Philosophy,' edited by W. T. Harris.

The complete edition of Hegel's works is in eighteen volumes. Haym and Rosenkranz have treated of his life from very different points of view. There is an English translation of his 'Logic' by Wallace; of his 'Philosophy of History' by Sibree; and of his 'Phenomenology of Spirit,' 'Propaedeutik,' and parts of his 'History of Philosophy,' in the 'Journal of Speculative Philosophy.' Cabot's article "Hegel" in the 'North American Review,' April 1868, and Dr Hutchison Stirling's "Secret of Hegel," may be mentioned. Also Prof. A. Seth's 'Hegelianism and Personality,' 1887.

The various recent phases of modern German pantheism have been perhaps nowhere more minutely delineated than in the volumes of Hoffmann's 'Philosophische Schriften.'

NOTE XL., page 379.

MODERN FRENCH PANTHEISM.

The philosophy of Cousin has been treated of by Damiron, by Alaux, by Secretan, by Janet, &c. In my 'Historical Philosophy in France' I have examined what may be held to be the pantheistic principles and consequences involved in his theory of history. On the question whether he can be correctly described as a pantheist or not, see Dr Henry's preface to the fourth edition of his translation of the Elements of Psychology' (N. Y., 1856), and an article of Dr Hodge, entitled "The Princeton Review and Cousin's Philosophy," reprinted from the Princeton Review' in the 'Brit. and For. Ev. Rev.,' vol. v., No. xvii. (1856).

The Saint-Simonian religion and polity rested on the pantheistic conception that God is all that is, and that matter and spirit are not separate existences, but the two sides or aspects of the Divine substance. On this subject, see pp. 58-68 of the previously mentioned'Étude' of M. Ferraz.

In M. Caro's 'L'Idée de Dieu' the views of M. Renan and of M. Vacherot regarding God are subjected to a thorough and decisive criticism.