1853; the last named, besides consolidating and amending the law on government annuities, inaugurated the system of granting annuities for small amounts through the medium of Savings Banks. May, Const. Hist.; Walford's Insurance Cyclopædia contains an elaborate and exhaustive article, embracing both public and private annuities. Statutes 4 W. & M., c. 3; 19 Geo. III., c. 18; 48 Geo. III., c. 142; 16 and 17 Vict., c. 45. [S. J. L.] A Anselm, St. (b. 1033, d. 1109), Archbishop of Canterbury, was born at or near Aosta. His father, a vassal of Maurienne, was a man of some wealth and position, but of unthrifty habits and violent temper. When only fifteen Anselm ardently desired to enter the monastic life, but his father refused his consent. severe illness did not soften the old man, and when his mother's death removed the last barrier to the father's tyranny, Anselm crossed the Alps with a single attendant to seek a career and escape his father's oppression. He spent three years in Burgundy, and was thence attracted to Normandy. After a sojourn at Avranches, where Lanfranc had once taught, Anselm removed to Bec, now flourishing under Lanfranc as prior. After a severe course of study and discipline he took the vows, at the age of twenty-seven. Three years later he was elected prior on Lanfranc removing to Caen. His administration made Bec inferior only to Cluny in general repute and superior to it in learning. Not only did Bec turn out great scholars, but Anselm infused a high intellectual tone into the whole monastery. He now published his famous Proslogion and Monologion, and in 1078, when Herlwin died, was made abbot. This office led to several visits to England, to look after the estates Bec had obtained from the Conqueror. These visits made him widely known among all classes of Englishmen. He renewed his connection with Lanfranc, now archbishop, became acquainted with Eadmer of Canterbury, his future biographer, and established cordial relations with Earl Hugh of Chester. He had a good word to say for English saints like Alphege when Lanfranc denied their claims to martyrdom. died in 1089, and everyone recognised in Anselm the one man who could, as at Bec, continue Lanfranc's work and keep William II. in check. But William kept the see vacant four years, to secure, with the rich temporalities, freedom from unpleasant advice. In 1092 Anselm again visited England, very unwillingly, lest he should be accused of ambition, but overcome at last by the importunity for spiritual consolation of Earl Hugh, now very ill. Anselm was still in England when a sudden illness stirred Rufus's sluggish conscience, and he resolved to atone for his past crimes by making the Abbot of Bec archbishop. Anselm was almost dragged before the sick king's bed, and after a show of resistance, ludicrous if not sincere, was positively Lanfranc forced to accept the office. But if archbishop he would maintain all the rights of his church. Only on William's promise to resign the temporalities, to listen to Anselm's advice in things spiritual, and to acknowledge Urban II. instead of the imperial anti-Pope Clement, did he submit to consecration (Dec. 4, 1093). William soon recovered, relapsed into his old ways, and quarrelled with Anselm. Anselm's present of 500 marks was scornfully rejected as inadequate. His desire for the convocation of a council to check the tide of profligacy and profanity was equally unheeded. At last William's refusal to acknowledge Urban, or to allow Anselm to go to Rome to receive the pallium from that Pope, led to a definite rupture. The Great Council of Rockingham failed to make Anselm give way to William; but the king ended the dispute himself by secretly acknowledging Urban, and getting from him Anselm's pallium. The fresh difficulty of Anselm's refusal to accept it from lay hands was got over by his taking it himself from the high altar of his cathedral. But within a year William brought him before the Curia Regis on a charge of inadequately fulfilling his feudal obligations in the Welsh war. Anselm now appealed to the Pope, wrung from Rufus a licence to travel, and left England in October, 1097. William at once seized on the estates of his see. At Rome, Anselm soon found that Urban, though very friendly, was too wary to quarrel with the English king. While in Italy he took part in two councils. At Bari he defended the double Procession against the Greeks. At the Lateran he shared in excommunicating all concerned with the sin of lay investiture. Tired of fruitless waiting, Anselm left Italy in the early summer of 1099, and lived chiefly at Lyons, till William's death and Henry's need of friends recalled him from exile. But though Henry had urged Anselm's immediate return, he required him before long to renew his homage, and be again "invested" with his archbishopric. Thus the investiture contest at last crossed over into England, but was conducted in a spirit different from that displayed by Gregory VII. and Henry IV. Anselm absolutely refused to yield; Henry insisted on prerogative and precedent; but king and prelate always treated each other with the utmost courtesy. An agreement to refer the matter to the Pope led only to Paschal II.'s strong support of Anselm; and as Henry would not give way, the primate went into exile a second time, in 1103. In 1105 Anselm felt compelled to threaten excommunication, but his ultimatum led to an interview and reconciliation with Henry, when the famous compromise was devised which half a generation later was accepted at Worms by Pope and Emperor. In 1106 Anselm returned. He gave canonical consecration to the bishops irregularly appointed during the rupture, and efficiently aided Henry against the feudalists. He found time to compose a treatise on the Agreement of Grace and Predestination with Free Will. He died April 21, 1109, aged seventy-six, and was buried next to Lanfranc at Canterbury. Not till the end of the fifteenth century did he receive formal canonisation from the worst of popes, Alexander VI.; but long before this Dante had placed him in paradise among the greatest saints of Christendom. Anselm's personal character was lofty and pure. But the saint in private life was also a churchman and a politician of high rank, the successful governor of a great abbey and greater see, and the author of the investiture compromise. He represented the highest ideals of medieval Christendom. His contest with William and Henry was to him a struggle for principle and divine law against mere force and worldliness. That it involved the subordination of budding nationality to dying cosmopolitanism, the subjection of the state to a spiritual tyranny as ruthless as that of William, could not be seen by Anselm. As the precursor of at least one side of scholastic philosophy, Anselm has an equal claim to fame. Although his unsystematic treatises became unduly neglected when brought into competition with the vast and methodical tractates of the later schoolmen, he, more than anyone else, gave that impulse to justify Scripture and the Church by reason and dialectic, which was the dominant idea of the most characteristic school of medieval philosophy. In the Monologion, he tried to "elicit from the necessity of reason, without the aid of Scripture, the idea of God and the real foundation of it," by recourse to the Platonic theory of "ideas," as expressed by St. Augustine. In the Proslogion he pursces the same line still further, and anticipates Descartes' famous principle "that the idea of God in the human mind necessarily involves the reality of that idea." His Cur Deus Homo attempts to establish a logical and rational theory of the Incarnation, and has profoundly influenced all subsequent speculation on that subject. His crude realism passed away with the advent of more systematic thinking, but the impulse he gave remained permanent. The best editions of Anselm's works are those of Dom Gerberon (Paris, 1675) and Migne (Patrologic Cursus Completus). Cur Deus Homo has been translated into English (Oxford, 1858), and the Monologion and Proslogion into French, with comments, in Bonchitte's Rationalisme Chrétien (Paris, 1842). Some of the Meditations have been done into English by Dr. Pusey. Eadmer's Vita Anselmi and Historia Novella (printed in Migne, Patrolog., v. 159) are our great sources for the personal and political career of Anselm. After 1093 his history is the history of the time, and much therefore can be got from the general authorities for the period. They are fully and elaborately worked up in Mr. Freeman's William Rufus. Dean Church's Saint Anselm is the best general account of him in English, better than that in Dean Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. Church's Anson, GEORGE, 1ST BARON (b. 1697, d. 1761), in 1716 became second lieutenant of H.M.S. Hampshire, and during the two following years sailed under Admiral Byng in the Mediterranean. In 1724 he attained the rank of post-captain. He visited South Carolina, and founded the town of Anson (1733). In 1740 he was despatched with six vessels to sail round Cape Horn and rifle the shores of Peru. Beset by terrible storms, he appointed the island of Juan Fernandez as a rendezvous for his ships. Next scurvy broke out. The vessels at length arrived at the island, except the Wager, which was wrecked. The Spanish fleet sent to attack them was driven back into the Rio de la Plata. Foiled in his attempt to catch the Spanish treasure ship, Anson sailed westward from America with the Centurion, his sole remaining ship, and arrived at Spithead in June, 1744, after an absence of three years and nine months, during which he had circumnavigated the globe. He was at once appointed Rear-Admiral of the Blue and Commissioner of the Admiralty. In 1746 he was made Vice-Admiral. In the following year he commanded the Channel squadron, and defeated De la Jonquière off Cape Finisterre. For this exploit he was raised to the peerage. In 1749 he became Vice Admiral of Great Britain, and in 1751 First Commissioner of the Admiralty. He commanded at the descent on Cherbourg in 1758. Anson's talents were of a rather mediocre order, and scarcely bore a proportion to the honours and success he attained. He was dull and somewhat unready in business, so that it was said of him after his famous expedition that he had been round the world but never in it. He was, however, a man of great courage, coolness, and determination. Waldegrave, Memoirs; Anson's Voyage, compiled from his papers soon after his return in 1744, and frequently reprinted; D. L. Purvis, English Circumnavigators, 1874. Anstruther, SIR ROBERT (b. 1768, d. 1809), was quartermaster-general to Sir Ralph Abercromby's army in Egypt, in the campaign of 1800. In 1808 he went to Portugal with the reinforcements for Sir Arthur Wellesley's division, and was present at the battle of Vimiera, in command of a brigade. In the subsequent campaign of this year he commanded the rear-guard of Sir John Moore's army during the retreat. He died of exhaustion and fatigue, brought on by his exertions Antigua, the most important of the Leeward Islands, was discovered by Columbus in 1493. In 1632 an English settlement was founded in the island by Sir Thomas Warner, a further influx of colonists from Britain taking place in 1663, in which year a grant of the island was made to Lord Willoughby. In 1666 it was ravaged by a French expedition from Martinique, but by the Treaty of Breda, in the same year, was formally ceded to Britain. In 1710 an insurrection caused by the misconduct of the governor, Colonel Park, took place, and the governor was slain; in 1737 a proposed rebellion of the negroes was crushed before it came to anything. The emancipation of the slaves in 1834 was effected without any of the disturbances which took place in Jamaica. In 1871 Antigua became part of the Federation of the Leeward Islands, and is the residence of the governor-in-chief; even before that date it was a representative colony, its affairs being administered by a governor, a legislative council nominated by the crown, and an elective legislative asseinbly of fourteen members. B. Edwards, Hist. of West Indies; R. M. Martin, Hist. of the British Colonies, vol. ii. Anti-Jacobin, THE, was a magazine established in Nov., 1797, and brought out weekly until the following July, under the editorship of William Gifford. The object of the paper was mainly political, being intended to satirise the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of the Whigs. The most distinguished of its contributors were John Hookham Frere and George Canning, the latter of whom was the author of the cele brated story of the "Needy Knife Grinder." Though its object was political, it contained much parody of the literature of the day, especially of Southey and Darwin, both of whom afforded fertile subjects for Canning's wit. The Anti-Jacobin as at first projected had but a short life. The first number was published Nov. 20, 1797, and the last on July 9 in the following year. It was, however, continued on a new plan, with less of a political and more of a literary character, until 1818. Some of the papers that appeared in it have frequently been reprinted. Anti-Slavery Association. [SLAVE TRADE.] Antrim, ALEXANDER MACDONNELL, 3RD EARL OF (b. 1615, d. 1699), was a Roman Catholic, and an active supporter in Ireland of James II. after the Revolution. He was sent with 1,200 men to occupy Londonderry, but the inhabitants shut the gates in his face, and he thought it prudent to retire to Coleraine. At the battle of the Boyne his cavalry fled, without striking a blow, before the enemy. Lord Antrim was attainted of high treason, but was subsequently included in the provisions of the Treaty of Limerick, and his honours and estates were restored to him. Antrim, RANDAL MACDONNELL, MARQUIS OF (d. 1682), was employed in 1641 to gain over the Irish army, and he greatly ingratiated himself with the Catholics. Though a Catholic and a Cavalier, he was eager to fight the Ulster rebels, and offered his aid to Monroe, who, however, treacherously seized him, and kept him a prisoner for eight months, when he escaped, joined Owen O'Neil, and became one of the Kilkenny Council, pretending that he would bring 10,000 men over to England. The 1,500 men under Kolkitto who joined Montrose in 1644 were sent by him. Clarendon says of him that he was a narrow-minded and vain man, and aspired to supplant Ormonde as a commander, though wholly unfit for the post. Clarendon, Hist. of the Rebellion; Froude, Eng. in Ireland. Antwerp, THE SURRENDER OF (1706), was an important advantage for the allies in the War of the Spanish Succession. The town was the key to the Scheldt fortresses, and in fact commanded the whole of Brabant and West Flanders. "It might otherwise be described," says Mr. Burton, as representing in enlargement the relation of its own citadel to the minor fortified works attached to its walls, since it was the centre of convergence to a group of fortified towns bound to it by an apparatus of dykes and canals." Marlborough was so convinced of its importance that he termed his plans against it "the great design." The fortress had previously been occupied by Boufflers, who had driven Opdam from it. After the battle of Ramillies, Cadogan was sent to summon the town. Marlborough awaited the news with anxiety, as a siege would cause great delay. The inhabitants were, however, to a man in favour of their new king, and the French were therefore compelled to give up the town. For the remainder of the war it remained in the hands of the allies. Coxe, Marlborough Burton, Reign of Queen Anne; Wyon, Reign of Anne. Antwerp, EXPEDITION AGAINST (1809). [WALCHEREN EXPEDITION.] Appa Sahib was the nephew of Ragojee Bhonslah [MAHRATTAS], on whose death (1816) he became regent of Nagpore, in consequence of the idiotcy of the heir, Passwajee. Being opposed by a powerful faction in the court and zenana, he turned to the English, and a subsidiary treaty was concluded May 27, 1816, which provided that a force of 6,000 infantry, and a regiment of cavalry, together with the due proportion of artillery, should be subsi- This Mill, Hist. of India (Wilson's ed.), viii., ch. iv.-ix. Appeal of Treason. [TREASON.] Appeals to Rome. [PAPACY.] decision of another court called, in reference to the court of appeal, the court below." Before the Norman Conquest no suit could be carried to a higher tribunal until it had been first heard in the Hundred Court; thence an appeal lay to the Shire Moot, and thence to the Witenagemot, which was the final court of appeal. Under the Norman kings, appeals were decided in the Curia Regis; while the appeal from the ordinary law courts under Henry II. lay to the sovereign as the source of justice, and to the Concilium Ordinarium. By degrees, however, petitions for redress were addressed to the Chancellor rather than the king; and in the reign of Edward III. the Court of Chancery was constituted as a Court of Equity, but not of appeal. The Concilium Ordinarium (and not the Commune Concilium) was for long the only court of appeal; by degrees its appellate jurisdiction passed to the House of Lords, whose power to hear common law appeals has never been questioned. In 1661, however, in the famous case of Shirley v. Fagg, the Commons denied that the Lords could hear appeals from equity; but this right, first asserted in the reign of Charles I., has never been attacked since. In 1358, the Court of Exchequer Chamber was created as an intermediate court of appeal between the Common Law Courts and the House of Lords; the powers of this court were extended in 1585, and reconstituted in 1831. Under Henry VIII., appeals from the ecclesiastical courts to Rome were forbidden under the penalty of præmunire, and appeals from the archbishops' courts were declared to lie to the king in Chancery, who was to appoint Lords Delegates of Appeals to hear appeals from the Admiralty, ecclesiastical, and baronial courts. In 1832 this appellate jurisdiction was transferred to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. By the Supreme Court of Judicature Act (36 & 37 Vict., c. 60) of 1873, the appellate functions of this committee, and of the Court of Exchequer Chamber, were transferred to the High Court of Appeal constituted by that Act, with appellate jurisdiction from all courts of common law and equity, and from the Palatine Courts of Durham and LanThe final appeal was still left to the House of Lords. [CHANCERY; EXCHEQUER CHAMBER; LORDS, HOUSE OP.] Appellants, or Lords Appellant, Was the name given to the nobles who in 1387 "appealed" of treason Richard II.'s ministers, De Vere, Neville, De la Pole, Tresilian, and Brember. When it was known that the king, with the aid of his supporters in various parts of the country and the citizens of London, was attempting to resume the full exercise of his authority, of which he had been deprived by the commission forced on him the previous year, the Duke of Gloucester, with a large body of troops, marched to London, and compelled him (Nov. 17) to receive a petition of complaint against the royal counsellors. caster. On this proceeding he immediately fled. The Appellants exhibited the bill of impeachment in the Parliament which met in Feb., 1388, and, in spite of the protests of the judges, it was carried. Three of the ministers had already escaped from the kingdom; but Tresilian and Brember were arrested and put to death. The Appellants were five in number-the Duke of Gloucester, and the Earls of Derby, Nottingham, Warwick, and Arundel. [RICHARD II.; GLOUCESTER, THOMAS, DUKE OF.] Appellate Jurisdiction is "the jurisdiction exercised by a court of justice at the instance of a person complaining of the Reeves, Hist. of Eng. Law; Stephen, Commentaries; H. Broom, Const. Hist. [F. S. P.] Apprentices are persons bound by indentures to serve a master for a certain period, receiving in return for their services maintenance and instruction in their master's craft. The system of apprenticeship in England is of very ancient date, and probably was instituted as early as the trade gilds themselves. In medieval times the principle of combination amongst members of one trade was universally recognised, and in order to practise any craft it was necessary to become free of the company or gild of that craft. This freedom was obtained by serving an apprenticeship of so many years; and as the number of apprentices which each master was allowed to take was usually limited, a material check was placed upon the numbers of those who were privileged to exercise each trade. Although the system of apprenticeship existed in England from about the twelfth century, and is occasionally referred to in Acts of Parliament (e.g., 12 Rich. II., c. 3), it was not until 1563 that the famous Statute of Apprentices was passed. By this Act no person was allowed to exercise a trade unless he had previously served a seven years' apprenticeship to it, though the restriction did not, of course, affect trades which were established in England after the passing of the statute. This Act was speedily found very burdensome, and, although it was held to apply only to towns, it was repealed in 1814 on the recommendation of a committee of the House of Commons; some reservations were, however, made "in favour of the customs and by-laws of the city of London and of other cities, and of corporations and companies lawfully constituted." In 1601 it was enacted that the overseers of a parish might bind pauper children as apprentices until their twentyfourth year, but in 1728 the age was reduced to twenty-one. In 1845 an Act was passed which regulated the binding of boys apprenticed on board vessels, such boys to be between the ages of twelve and seventeen. The terms of apprenticeship in Ireland and Scotland were much less than in England, varying from five to three years, and in Scotland, says Adam Smith, "the corporation laws are less oppressive than in any part of Europe." Apprenticeship, though not now necessary, except in a few cases (as that of solicitors and the like), is frequently entered into by contract, the master being in all cases bound to provide necessary food, clothing, and lodging. The apprentices of the Elizabethan and Stuart periods were usually the sons of ycomen or tradesmen, and, being forbidden to wear the genteel rapier, carried a stout bat or club. Hence the cry when an uproar commenced of "Prentices! clubs!" From the time of the Tudors the apprentices of London were the special "champions of mercantile jealousy arrayed against aristocratic arrogance; and are to be found in almost every London riot, until they were finally the conquerors at Marston Moor and Naseby." Macpherson, Annals of Commerce, iii. 444, 607. [L. C. S.] Appropriation of Supplies. The successive maxims, the enforcement of which finally secured to the Commons the complete control of taxation, were: (1) that the Parliament alone could grant supplies, and No the Commons alone originate such grants; (2) that their petitions for redress must be answered before supplies should be granted; (3) that the right to grant includes the right to decide the appropriation of the grant for. definite purposes, and to demand the audit of its expenditure. The Parliament of the sixteenth century saw the two former of these claims constantly evaded by the arbitrary or underhand action of the crown. They began also to see that the way to counteract this, and to counteract at the same time the extravagance or dishonesty of the minister of the crown, was by putting in force the third claim. This had been suggested in the early struggles of the thirteenth century; as in 1237, when the crown offered to allow a committee of the Great Council to supervise the expenditure of the grant then asked for. The plan comes forward again in 1262 and in 1266; its importance, however, was not yet realised. doubt under Edward I. it was felt to be enough that Parliament alone should make grants, while under Edward III., Parliament advanced to the principle of redress before supply; yet the principle of appropriation was, even in these reigns, plainly exhibited in the custom of explaining to the country in the writ of summons to Parliament what the specific purpose was of the grant about to be demanded, whether for a French, a Welsh, or a Scotch war, or for defence of the seas, or for protection against invasion. Indeed, under Edward III. the grant was commonly stated to be made for this particular purpose; while in 1377 the grant for defence of the seas is put by the Commons into the hands of the London citizens, Walworth and Philpot, to expend; and in 1390 is clearly displayed the distinction between the ordinary and the war expenditure, ten shillings and thirty shillings respectively being allotted to each, out of the forty shillings tax on every sack of wool. The principle thus established was fully accepted in the Lancastrian reigns. Tonnage and poundage, for instance, became the recognised appropriation for defence of the seas, as the household expenses were supposed to be provided out of the crown lands; and Fortescue wished the principle carried further, so that the crown lands should be redeemed, and inalienably set apart for such extraordinary expenses as embassies, pensions, protection against invasion, &c. It was, in fact, the increasing poverty of the crown that directed attention to the distinction of the various heads of expenditure, and the need of a strict system of appropriation; and it was natural, therefore, that when the crown, in Yorkist and Tudor hands, became wealthy as well as despotic, these distinctions, and the appropriations among them, should be lost sight of. Parliament met but rarely; tonnage and poundage were granted for the king's life; benevolences filled up the royal coffers, already enriched by forfeitures; and |