SYNTAX.

SYNTAX treats either of the offices and relations of words, as arranged in the construction of sentences, or of the offices and relations of these sentences themselves. It may, therefore, be properly divided into Syntax of Words, and Syntax of Sentences.

I. SYNTAX OF WORDS.

The Syntax of Words includes the offices or uses of words in the formation of sentences. Of these the following are the most important.

SUBJECT. That of which something is affirmed or denied ; as, "Truth is mighty."

PREDICATE. That which is affirmed or denied of the subject; as, "Truth is mighty." The Predicate consists of two parts, the verb or copula, and that which is asserted of the subject, ca.led the attribute. In the sentence "Truth is mighty," the verb is is the copula, and the attribute is the adjective mighty. The two words, is mighty, taken together, express what is declared or predicated of truth.

COPULA. Some form of the neuter verb to be; as, "I am free." "He will be careful."

COMPELLATIVE. The person or thing addressed; as,"Haughty Gentile, even now ye walk on ruin and on prodigy." 'Arise, winds of Autumn, arise."

APPOSITIVE. A substantive in apposition with some other; as, We, the consuls, are remiss." "Obidah, the son of Abensina." "Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storms."

ADJUNCT. A limiting or modifying substantive, not in apposition; as, "The applause of the multitude delights him." "Go, greet the King of Morven. "Borne on Devotion's wing." In these examples, the words multitude, him, king, Morven, Devotion's and wing, are adjuncts. Adjuncts are of two kinds, EXPONENTIAL and NUDE. They are also COMPLEMENTARY or CIRCUMSTANTIAL, according to the office they fill in the sentence. EXPONENTIAL ADJUNCT. An adjunct connected with the modified word or sentence by an exponent; as, "Let us drive them from the land." "Night is the time for rest." "The mountains bend o'er thee." "He sailed between the islands." In these examples, the adjuncts land, rest, thee, and islands, are connected with the modified words by the exponents from, for, o'er and between.

NUDE ADJUNCT. An adjunct not connected with the modified word by an exponent; as, "The Romans conquered Britain."

'Hannibal's army was victorious." "The rich man beholds his possessions with complacency." In these examples the adjuncts Britain, Hannibal's and his, are not connected with the words they modify by exponents, and hence are called nude.

COMPLEMENTARY ADJUNCT. A substantive completing the idea of the modified word; as, "I have read the Iliad." "I've warned them." "I speak to thee." In these examples, Пliad completes the idea of the verb read, them, of the verb warned, and thee, of the verb speak.

CIRCUMSTANTIAL ADJUNCT. A substantive denoting some circumstance of time, place, means, &c.; as, "The class will recite in the lecture room in the morning" "Rome was saved by Cicero from the plots of Catiline." "I came to see the ruins." In these examples, the adjuncts room, morning and Cicero express the place, time and means, of the acts stated, and to see the ruins, the cause or motive of coming.

EXPONENTS. Words which are the signs of the offices and relations of the words or sentences before which they are placed. They may be classified as follows:

I. Exponents of the offices and relations of WORDS.

II. Exponents of the offices and relations of SENTENCES. I. Exponents of the offices and relations of WORDS.

1. Those which mark address; as, "Joy meet thee, O warrior." "O king, live forever." Here the exponent O is joined with the compellatives warrior and king, to call particular attention.

2. Those which mark the relations of adjuncts, i.e., PREPOSITIONS; as, He came from London." "I once passed. through the place." "Praise Him with cymbals." In these examples the exponents from, through and with express the relations existing between the modified words and the adjuncts London, place and cymbals.

3. CONJUNCTIONS, used to connect the compound members of sentences; as, "He came and returned." "He writes elegantly and rapidly."

"Nine and five are fourteen." In

these examples and expresses the relation of addition.
4. Those which denote special application; as,
"He is
distinguished as a statesman. "He presided over the
meeting as president."

Exponents of the offices and relations of SENTENCES. (1.) CONNECTIVE, denoting the connection of sentences.

1. Those simply denoting the relation of sentences, i. CONJUNCTIONS; as, "I will find him if I can." Here if denotes the relation of condition. "I will send one or the other." Here or expresses an alternative. "He will not succeed, because he is fickle." Here because expresses the relation of cause or reason.

2. Those that not only denote the relations of the sentences, but also enter into their structure, as CONNECTIVE PRONOUNS OF ADVERBS; as, "I called upon the professor, whom I found reading Plato." Here the relative pronoun

whom is equivalent to and him: "I called upon the profes sor, and I found him reading Plato." "We came to London, where we spent several months." Here where is equivalent to the conjunction and, and the adverb of place there: "We came to London, and there we spent several months." "When I visited Rome I saw the Pope." In this sentence when is equivalent to and then: "I visited Rome, and then I saw the Pope."

(2.) CHARACTERISTIC, distinguishing the character of sentences, without denoting connection.

1. CHARACTERISTIC PARTICLES; as, "I will not go." Here not denotes the negative character of the sentence "Who will execute this important order?" Here who shows the sentence to be interrogative.

2. CHARACTERISTIC PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS; as, "I can see no one." Here no is equivalent to not and any: "I cannot see any one." "I can find it nowhere." Here nowhere is equivalent to the negative not, the adjective pronoun any, and the adverb of place where: "I cannot find it anywhere."

A characteristic exponent is termed

1. Confirmative, when used for confirmation; as, amen, verily: "Verily I say unto you."

2. Interrogative, when it is used to ask a question; as, "Who said it?" "Where is he?"

3. Negative, when it is used for denial; as, not, no, nowhere "I will not do it."

4. Prohibitive, when it is used for prohibition; as, shalt not kill."

"Thou

5. Emphatic, or intensive, when it is used for emphasis; as, "I will do it myself."

6. Contingent, when it implies contingency; as, all men forsake thee, yet will not I."

"Though

7. Additive, when it implies addition; as, "You may take this also." "He came likewise."

8. Explicative, when it denotes explanation; as, namely. "I send you a bill of goods, namely, three pieces broadcloth, thirty yards satin, &c."

II. SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

A sentence is an assemblage of words, expressing a thought. Sentences are divided, primarily, into two kinds, SIMPLE and COMPOUND.

A SIMPLE SENTENCE consists of but one proposition; as, "Self-denial is the most exalted pleasure." "James and John have gone to England."

A COMPOUND SENTENCE consists of vo or more distinct propositions; as, "The sacrifices of virtue will not only be rewarded hereafter, but they will be recompensed even in this life." "We consecrate our work to the spirit of national independence, and we wish that the light of peace may rest upon it forever."

Sentences, whether simple or compound, are either DISTINCT or INCORPORATED, INTELLECTIVE or VOLITIVE, DECLARATIVE or INTERROGATIVE, ACTUAL or CONTINGENT, POSITIVE or NEGATIVE, according to their use.

A sentence is DISTINCT, when the predicate has a distinct form as a finite verb; as, "Virtue embalms the memory of the good." A sentence is INCORPORATED, when its predicate becomes a part of another sentence as a participle or infinitive; as, "The Romans rushed forward, driving their enemies before them." This sentence might be expressed thus, "The Romans rushed forward; they drove their enemies before them." Expressed in this form, the latter clause is distinct. "He perceived the ranks of the foe to be broken and disordered." If expressed thus, "He perceived that the ranks of the foe were broken and disordered," the latter clause would be distinct.

A sentence is INTELLECTIVE, when it expresses an act of the understanding; as, "The whirlwind is heard on the heath." "I hear thee speak of that better land."

A VOLATIVE SENTENCE expresses an act of the will; as, "Charge, Chester, charge." Come on the light-winged gale."

"Go where glory waits thee."

A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE is used to declare or make known something; as, "We must fight." "This declaration will

stand."

A sentence is INTERROGATIVE, when a question is proposed; "Who sent thee hither?" "Star of descending night, what dost thou behold in the plain ?"

as,

An ACTUAL SENTENCE expresses what really is or is not; as, "The stormy winds are laid." "It is not the part of wisdom to rush blindly into the midst of danger." An actual sentence may be declarative or interrogative; positive or negative.

A CONTINGENT SENTENCE expresses what is hypothetical; as, "It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood." "You and I may rue it." A contingent sentence, like an actual sentence, may be declarative or interrogative, positive or negative. A POSITIVE SENTENCE expresses what was, what is, or what will be; as, "I was studying." "I am studying." "I shall be

studying."

A NEGATIVE SENTENCE expresses what was not, what is not, or what will not be; as, "I did not go." "I am not going." "I shall not go." "Henceforth to rule was not enough for Bonaparte."

PARTS OF A SENTENCE.

A sentence consists of two parts, the SUBJECT and the PRED

ICATE.

1. The Subject.

e subject of a sentence is either grammatical or logical. The GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT is the substantive of which something is affirmed or denied, unmodified; as, "The love of life is found in every breast." "Obidah, the son of Abensina, left the caravansary."

The LOGICAL SUBJECT includes the grammatical, and all its modifiers; as, "The love of life is found in every breast." "Obidah, the son of Abensina, left the caravansary." "The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability."

The subject is said to be SIMPLE when it consists of but one substantive, modified or unmodified; as, "Beauty is an all-per vading presence." "The awful voice of the storm howls through the rigging."

A COMPOUND SUBJECT consists of two or more simple subjects; as, "Mounds of earth and monuments of marble shall pass away."

2. The Predicate.

The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or logical. It may, likewise, be simple or compound.

The GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE in a sentence is the finite verb; as, "I had wandered one evening in a vast forest." Studies serve for delight."

The LOGICAL PREDICATE consists of the grammatical, and all Its modifiers; as, "I had wandered one evening in a vast forest.' "Studies serve for delight." "He writes elegantly and beautifully."

A SIMPLE PREDICATE consists of one finite verb, modified or unmodified; as, "The murmur of the leaves steals upon his ear.” "Beauty gleams out in the hues of the moaning shell."

A COMPOUND PREDICATE consists of two or more simple predicates; as, 66 Impressions made upon the deathless spirit become a part of itself, and abide forever." "Obidah left the caravansary and pursued his journey."

CONNECTION OF SENTENCES.

Sentences are connected with each other in four ways: 1. By incorporation. 3. By coördination.

2. By subordination. 4. By simple succession. 1. In connection by INCORPORATION, one of the sentences loses its distinctness; as, "The class, having recited, retired from the hall." Here having recited is incorporated.

2. In connection by SUBORDINATION, one of the sentences is introduced as a part or circumstance, and modifies the leading clause; as, "The class, when it had recited, retired from the hall." Here the subordinate clause performs the office of an adverb of time in the predicate of the leading clause.

3. In connection by COÖRDINATION, the sentences are united by a connective, but neither sustains a secondary relation to the other; as, "Justice is the foundation of an everlasting fame, and there can be nothing commendable without it."

4. In connection by SIMPLE SUCCESSION, one sentence follows the other without a connective; as, "Autumn is dark on the mountains; gray mist rests on the hills; the whirlwind is heard on the heath; dark rolls the river through the narrow plain."