is to be taken from the general informations and complaints of the people

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of each province, who are best acquainted with their own wants, and ought people, therefore, when they demand nothing in derogation of the essential rightsshould be of sovereignty, to be diligently taken notice of. For without those essential rights, as I have often before said, the commonwealth cannot at all Consulted subsist.

A commander of an army in chief, if he be not popular, shall not be beloved nor feared as he ought to be by his army, and consequently cannot perform that office with good success. He must therefore be industrious, valiant, affable, liberal, and fortunate, that he may gain an opinion both of sufficiency, and of loving his soldiers. This is popularity, and breeds in the soldiers both desire and courage to recommend themselves to his favour, and protects the severity of the general in punishing, when need is, the mutinous or negligent soldiers. But this love of soldiers, if caution be not given of the commander's fidelity, is a dangerous thing to sovereign power; especially when it is in the hands of an assembly not popular. It belongeth therefore to the safety of the people, both that they be good conductors and faithful subjects to whom the sovereign commits his armies.

But when the sovereign himself is popular; that is, reverenced and beloved of his people, there is no danger at all from the popularity of a

popularity captains

danger

subject. For soldiers are never so generally unjust as to side with their d

captain, though they love him, against their sovereign, when they love not only his person, but also his cause. And therefore those who by violence have at any time suppressed the power of their lawful sovereign, before they could settle themselves in his place, have been always put to the trouble of contriving their titles, to save the people from the shame of receiving them. To have a known right to sovereign power is so popular a quality, as he that has it needs no more, for his own part, to turn the hearts of his subjects to him, but that they see him able absolutely to govern his own family; nor, on the part of his enemies, but a disbanding of their armies. For the greatest and most active part of mankind has never hitherto been well contented with the present.

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Concerning the offices of one sovereign to another, which are comprehended in that law, which is commonly called the "law of nations," I need not say anything in this place, because the law of nations, and the law of Nature, is the same thing. And every sovereign hath the same right, in procuring the safety of his people, that any particular man can have in procuring the safety of his own body. And the same law that dictateth to men that have no civil government, what they ought to do, and what to Cotab avoid in regard of one another, dictateth the same to commonwealths, that is, to the consciences of sovereign princes and sovereign assemblies; there jawbeing no court of natural justice but in the conscience only: where not man, but God reigneth; whose laws, such of them as oblige all mankind in respect of God, as He is the author of Nature, are "natural;" and in respect of the same God, as He is King of kings, are "laws." But of the kingdom of God, as King of kings, and as King also of a peculiar people, I shall speak in the rest of this discourse.

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Natural

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CHAPTER XXXI.

Of the Kingdom of God by Nature.

THAT the condition of mere nature, that is to say, of absolute liberty, such as is theirs that neither are sovereigns nor subjects, is anarchy and the condition of war: that the precepts by which men are guided to avoid that condition are the laws of Nature: that a commonwealth, without sovereign power, is but a word without substance, and cannot stand that subjects owe to sovereigns simple obedience, in all things wherein their obedience is not repugnant to the laws of God, I have sufficiently proved in that which I have already written. There wants only, for the entire knowledge of civil duty, to know what are those laws of God. For without that a man knows not, when he is commanded anything by the civil power, whether it be contrary to the law of God or not and so, either by too much civil obedience, offends the Divine Majesty; or through fear of offending God, transgresses the commandments of the commonwealth. To avoid both these rocks, it is necessary to know what are the laws divine. And seeing the knowledge of all law dependeth on the knowledge of the sovereign power, I shall say something, in that which followeth, of the 66 Kingdom of God."

"God is king, let the earth rejoice," saith the Psalmist (xcvii. 1). And again (Psalm xcix. 1): "God is king, though the nations be angry; and he that sitteth on the cherubims, though the earth be moved." Whether

men will or not, they must be subject always to the divine power. By denying the existence or providence of God, men may shake off their ease, but not their yoke. But to call this power of God, which extendeth itself not only to man, but also to beasts and plants and bodies inanimate, by the name of kingdom, is but a metaphorical use of the word. For he only is properly said to reign that governs his subjects by his word, and by promise of rewards to those that obey it, and by threatening them with punishment that obey it not. Subjects therefore in the kingdom of God are not bodies inanimate nor creatures irrational; because they understand no precepts as His: nor atheists, nor they that believe not that God has any care of the actions of mankind; because they acknowledge no word for His, nor have hope of His rewards or fear of His threatenings. They therefore that believe there is a God that governeth the world, and hath given precepts, and propounded rewards and punishments to mankind, are God's subjects; all the rest are to be understood as enemies.

To rule by words, requires that such words be manifestly made known, for else they are no laws: for to the nature of laws belongeth a sufficient and clear promulgation, such as may take away the excuse of ignorance; which in the laws of men is but of one only kind, and that is, proclamation or promulgation by the voice of man. But God declareth His laws three ways: by the dictates of "natural reason," by "revelation," and by the "voice" of some "man," to whom by the operation of miracles he procureth credit with the rest. From hence there ariseth a triple word of God, "rational," "sensible," and "prophetic:" to which correspondeth a triple hearing, "right reason," "sense supernatural,” and “faith.” As for sense supernatural, which consisteth in revelation or inspiration, there have not been any universal laws so given, because God speaketh not in that manner but to particular persons, and to divers men divers things.

From the difference between the other two kinds of God's word, "rational"

and "prophetic," there may be attributed to God a twofold kingdom, "natural" and " prophetic" natural, wherein He governeth as many of mankind as acknowledge His providence by the natural dictates of right reason; and prophetic, wherein having chosen out one peculiar nation, the Jews, for His subjects, He governed them, and none but them, not only by natural reason, but by positive laws, which He gave them by the mouths of His holy prophets. Of the natural kingdom of God I intend to speak in this chapter.

The right of nature, whereby God reigneth over men, and punisheth those that break His laws, is to be derived not from His creating them, as if He required obedience as of gratitude for His benefits, but from His "irresistible power.' I have formerly shown how the sovereign right ariseth from pact: to show how the same right may arise from nature, requires no more but to show in what case it is never taken away. Seeing all men by nature had right to all things, they had right every one to reign over all the rest. But because this right could not be obtained by force, it concerned the safety of every one, laying by that right, to set up men, with sovereign authority, by common consent, to rule and defend them: whereas if there had been any man of power irresistible, there had been no reason why he should not by that power have ruled and defended both himself and them, according to his own discretion. To those therefore whose power is irresistible, the dominion of all men adhereth naturally by their excellence of power; and consequently it is from that power that the kingdom over men, and the right of afflicting men at His pleasure, belongeth naturally to God Almighty; not as Creator and gracious, but as omnipotent. And though punishment be due for sin only, because by that word is understood affliction for sin; yet the right of afflicting is not always derived from men's sin, but from God's power.

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This question, "why evil men often prosper, and good men suffer adversity," has been much disputed by the ancient, and is the same with this of ours, "by what right God dispenseth the prosperities and adversities of this life;" and is of that difficulty, as it hath shaken the faith not only of the vulgar, but of philosophers, and which is more, of the saints, concerning the Divine Providence. "How good," saith David (Psalm lxxiii. 1, 2, 3) "is the God of Israel to those that are upright in heart; and yet my feet were almost gone, my treadings had well-nigh slipt for I was grieved at the wicked, when I saw the ungodly in such prosperity.' And Job, how earnestly does he expostulate with God for the many afflictions he suffered, notwithstanding his righteousness? This question in the case of Job is decided by God Himself, not by arguments derived from Job's sin, but His own power. For whereas the friends of Job drew their arguments from his affliction to his sin, and he defended himself by the conscience of his innocence, God Himself taketh up the matter, and having justified the affliction by arguments drawn from His power, such as this (Job xxxviii. 4), "Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth ?" and the like, both approved Job's innocence, and reproved the erroneous doctrine of his friends. Conformable to this doctrine is the sentence of our Saviour, concerning the man that was born blind, in these words: "Neither hath this man sinned, nor his fathers: but that the works of God might be made manifest in him." And though it be said, "that death entered into the world by sin" (by which is meant, that if Adam had never sinned, he had never died, that is, never suffered any separation of his soul from his body), it follows not thence, that God could not justly have afflicted him, though he had not sinned, as well as He afflicteth other living creatures that cannot sin.

Having spoken of the right of God's sovereignty, as grounded only on

nature; we are to consider next, what are the Divine laws, or dictates of natural reason; which laws concern either the natural duties of one man to another, or the honour naturally due to our Divine Soversign. The first are the same laws of Nature, of which I have spoken already in the fourteenth and fifteenth chapters of this treatise; namely, equity, justice, mercy, humility, and the rest of the moral virtues. It remaineth therefore that we consider what precepts are dictated to men, by their natural reason only, without other word of God, touching the honour and worship of the Divine Majesty.

Honour consisteth in the inward thought and opinion of the power and goodness of another; and therefore to honour God, is to think as highly of His power and goodness as is possible. And of that opinion, the external signs appearing in the words and actions of men are called "worship;" which is one part of that which the Latins understand by the word cultus. For cultus signifieth properly and constantly that labour which a man bestows on anything, with a purpose to make benefit by it. Now those things whereof we make benefit, are either subject to us, and the profit they yield followeth the labour we bestow upon them, as a natural effect; or they are not subject to us, but answer our labour, according to their own wills. In the first sense the labour bestowed on the earth is called "culture" and the education of children, a "culture" of their minds. In the second sense, where men's wills are to be wrought to our purpose, not by force, but by complaisance, it signifieth as much as courting, that is, a winning of favour by good offices; as by praises, by acknowledging their power, and by whatsover is pleasing to them from whom we look for any benefit. And this is properly "worship :" in which'sense Publicola is understood for a worshipper of the people; and cultus Dei, for the worship of God.

From internal honour, consisting in the opinion of power and goodness, arise three passions; "love," which hath reference to goodness; and "hope," and "fear," that relate to power: and three parts of external worship; "praise," "magnifying," and "blessing :" the subject of praise being goodness; the subject of magnifying and blessing being power, and the effect thereof felicity. Praise and magnifying are signified both by words and actions: by words, when we say a man is good or great by actions, when we thank him for his bounty, and obey his power. The opinion of the happiness of another can only be expressed by words. There be some signs of honour, both in attributes and actions, that be naturally so; as amongst attributes, "good," "just," "liberal," and the like; and amongst actions, "prayers,' thanks," and "obedience." Others are so by institution, or custom of men; and in some times and places are honourable; in others, dishonourable; in others, indifferent: such as are the gestures in salutation, prayer, and thanksgiving, in different times and places, differently used. The former is "natural;" the latter "arbitrary" worship.

And of arbitrary worship, there be two differences; for sometimes it is a "command," sometimes "voluntary" worship: commanded, when it is such as he requireth who is worshipped; free, when it is such as the worshipper thinks fit. When it is commanded, not the words, or gesture, but the obedience is the worship. But when free, the worship consists in the opinion of the beholders: for if to them the words or actions by which we intend honour, seem ridiculous, aad tending to contumely, they are no worship, because no signs of honour; and no signs of honour, because a sign is not a sign to him that giveth it, but to him to whom it is made, that is, to the spectator.

Again, there is a public" and a "private" worship. Public, is the

worship that a commonwealth performeth, as one person. Private, is that which a private person exhibiteth. Public, in respect of the whole commonwealth, is free; but in respect of particular men, it is not so.

Private, is

in secret free; but in the sight of the multitude, it is never without some restraint, either from the laws, or from the opinion of men; which is contrary to the nature of liberty.

The end of worship amongst men is power. For where a man seeth another worshipped, he supposeth him powerful, and is the readier to obey him; which makes his power greater. But God has no ends: the worship we do Him proceeds from our duty, and is directed according to our capacity, by those rules of honour that reason dictateth to be done by the weak to the more potent men, in hope of benefit, for fear of damage, or in thankfulness for good already received from them.

That we may know what worship of God is taught us by the light of Nature, I will begin with His attributes. Where, first, it is manifest, we ought to attribute to Him "existence." For no man can have the will to honour that which he thinks not to have any being,

Secondly, that those philosophers who said the world, or the soul of the world, was God, spake unworthily of Him; and denied His existence. For by God is understood the cause of the world; and to say the world is God is to say there is no cause of it, that is, no God.

Thirdly, to say the world was not created, but eternal, seeing that which is eternal has no cause, is to deny there is a God.

Fourthly, that they who attributing, as they think, ease to God, take from Him the care of mankind; take from Him his honour: for it takes away men's love, and fear of Him; which is the root of honour.

Fifthly, in those things that signify greatness and power; to say He is "finite," is not to honour Him; for it is not a sign of the will to honour God, to attribute to Him less than we can; and finite, is less than we can ; because to finite, it is easy to add more.

Therefore to attribute"figure" to Him is not honour; for all figure is finite :

Nor to say we conceive, and imagine, or have an "idea" of Him, in our mind for whatsoever we conceive is finite :

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Nor to attribute to Him "parts," or "totality; " which are the attributes only of things finite :

Nor to say He is in this or that "place;" for whatsoever is in place, is bounded, and finite :

Nor that He is "moved," or "resteth; " for both these attributes ascribe to Him place:

Nor that there be more gods than one; because it implies them all finite for there cannot be more than one infinite:

repentance,
"desire;

"anger,"

or of any

Nor to ascribe to Him, (unless metaphorically, meaning not the passion but the effect,) passions that partake of grief; as "mercy : or of want; as "appetite," "hope,' passive faculty; for passion is power limited by somewhat else. And therefore when we ascribe to God a 66 will," it is not to be understood, as that of man, for a rational appetite;" but as the power by which He effecteth everything.

66

Likewise when we attribute to Him "sight," and other acts of sense; as also "knowledge," and "understanding;" which in us is nothing else but a tumult of the mind, raised by external things that press the organical parts of man's body; for there is no such thing in God; and being things that depend on natural causes, cannot be attributed to Him.

He that will attribute to God nothing but what is warranted by natural reason, must either use such negative attributes as "infinite, "eternal,"