The roads were so raised as to command a prospect of the adjacent country. On each side there was usually a row of larger stones, called MARGINES, a little raised for foot passengers; hence the roads were said MARGINARI, Liv. xli. 27. *

Sometimes roads were only covered with gravel (glarea), with a foot-path of stone on each side, Ibid.

Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the Forum, called MILLIARIUM AUREUM, Plin. iii. 5. Tacit. Hist. i. 73. Suet. Oth. 6. Dio. liv. 8., where all the military ways terminated, Plut. in Galba, p. 1064. The miles, however, were reckoned not from it, but from the gates of the city, l. 154. D. de V. S. along all the roads to the limits of the empire, and marked on stones. Hence LAPIS is put for a mile; thus, ad tertium lapidem, the same with tria millia passuum ab urbe, Plin. xv. 18. Liv. xxvi. 10. At smaller distances, there were stones for travellers to rest on, and to assist those who alighted to mount their horses, Plutarch. in Gracch.

The public ways (PUBLICÆ VIE) were named either from the persons who first laid them out, or the places to which they led. Thus VIA APPIA, and near it, Via NUMICIA, [or Minucia, Hor. Ep. i. 18. 20.] which also led to Brundusium.

ninus Pius. One great cause of its being out of order arose from the Pontine marshes. The land occupied by them was inundated by the sea, A. U. 440, according to Pliny (iii. 9.); and he quotes Mucianus as saying, that thirty-three cities formerly stood there; previous to which time, we may suppose that the land was particularly fertile, as we read of Rome looking to a supply of corn from thence, and in 372 it was divided among the people: (vi. 21.) One hundred and fifty-two

years after the work of Appius, Corn. Cethegus Cos. again drained them, A. U. 593. In the time of J. Cæsar they were again marshy, and he was prevented from draining them by death. (Sueton. 44.) Augustus also did not succeed, though he undertook the work; so that the words of Horace were not quite true, or at least pre

6

That there was no carriage road through the marshes, we learn from Horace himself, who in his journey to Brundusium passed them in a boat (Sat. i. 5.), and Lucan mentions a canal, Et qua Pontinas via dividit uda paludes' (L. iii.). Trajan carried the road through the marshes for a distance of nineteen miles. Theodosius and his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, also repaired the road. In spite of all these successive labours, the marshes still remain. Pius VI. has perhaps effected as much as any of his predecessors, and a noble road has been constructed, in a perfectly straight line, for upwards of twenty miles." - Burton's Antiq. i. p. 99.

"It is singular that the Romans, who paid such extraordinary attention to the construction of roads, that they were carried in various directions throughout the whole extent of their vast empire, and were formed with such solidity as still to remain, in many parts, in perfect repair, should yet have neglected to pave the streets of the capital. What renders this the more to be wondered at, Herculaneum and Pompeii are found, wherever they have been explored, to have been not only paved, but provided with raised footways; yet certain it is, that the streets of Rome were, for a long period, only partially provided with pavement, and were entirely destitute of any separate path for the convenience of pedestrians, unless where that deficiency was supplied by the porticos in front of the houses. Neither was the city lighted or watched. There was a patrole indeed, but the police regulations were so defective, that the streets were the constant scene of midnight brawls, of which a humorous description is given by Juvenal. (Sat, iii.)” — Sketches of the Institutions, &c. of the Romans, p. 190.

Via AURELIA, along the coast of Etruria; FLAMINIA, to Ariminum and Aquileia*; CASSIA, in the middle between these two, through Etruria to Mutina, Cic. Phil. xii. 9. Cat. ii. 4.; ÆMILIA, which led from Ariminum to Placentia, Liv. xxxix. 2.

Via PRÆNESTINA, to Præneste; TIBURTINA, vel TIBURS, to Tibur, Horat. Sat. i. 6. 108.; OSTIENSIS, to Ostia; LAURENTINA, to Laurentum, Plin. Ep. ii. 16.: SALARIA; so called, because by it the Sabines carried salt from the sea, Festus, Martial. iv. 64. 18. LATINA, &c. †

The principal roads were called PUBLICÆ, vel MILITARES, consulares, vel prætoriæ; as among the Greeks, Bariinal, i. e. regiæ; the less frequented roads, PRIVATÆ, agrariæ, vel vicinales, qui ad agros et vicos ducunt, Ulpian.

The charge of the public ways was intrusted only to men of the highest dignity, Plin. Ep. v. 15. Augustus himself undertook the charge of the roads round Rome, and appointed two men of Prætorian rank to pave the roads, each of whom was attended by two lictors, Dio. liv. 8.

From the principal ways, there were cross roads, which led to some less noted place, to a country villa, or the like, called DIVERTICULA, Suet. Ner. 48. Plin. xxxi. 3. s. 25. Serv. ad Æn. ix. 379., which word is put also for the inns along the public roads, Liv. i. 51. Donat. in Ter. Eun. iv. 2. 7., hence for a digression from the principal subject, Liv. ix. 17. Juvenal. xv. 72.

But places near the road where travellers rested (quò diverterent ad requiescendum) are commonly called DIVERSORIA, whether belonging to a friend, the same with Hospitia, Cic. Fam. vi. 19., or purchased on purpose, Ib. vii. 23., or hired (meritoria), then properly called CAUPONE, Horat. Ep. i. 11, 12., or TABERNÆ DIVERSORIÆ, Plaut. Truc. iii. 2. 29., and the keeper (institor) of such a place, of an inn or tavern, CAUPO; those who went to it. DIVERSORES, Civ. Inven. i. 4. Divin. 27. Hence commorandi natura diversorium nobis, non habitandi dedit, Id. Sen. 23.

In later times, the inns or stages along the roads were called MANSIONES; commonly at the distance of half a day's journey from one another (see p. 323.), and at a less distance, places for relays, called MUTATIONES, where the public couriers (publici cursores vel VEREDARII) changed horses.

These horses were kept in constant readiness, at the expense of the emperor, but could only be used by those employed on the public

"It was paved in the censorship of C. Flaminius and L. Paulus, A. U. 533. It went by Ocriculum (Otricoli), Interamna (Terni), Fanum Fortunæ (Fano), to Ariminum (Rimini). Here the Via Emilia began, which was constructed A. U. 567, when M. Æmilius Lepidus was consul. It passed by Bononia (Bologna), Parma, Placentia, Mediolanum (Milan), Brixia (Brescia), Verona, Patavium (Padua), to Aquileia. This also was sometimes called the Via Flaminia. Other roads fell into it at different places, such as the Cassia, Aurelia, Annia, Claudia, Augusta, Cimina, Amerina, Sempronia, and Postumia." - Burton's Antiq. i.

p. 88.

"The Via Latina went to Beneventum, through Anagnia (Anagni), Ferentinum (Ferentino), Aquinum (Aquino), and Casinum (Monte Cassino.) It was paved in the time of Augustus, under the direction of Messala; and was considered a most astonishing work. Tibull. i. El. 7. 59. Mart. viii. 3." Burton's Antiq. i. p. 101.

service, without a particular permission notified to the innkeepers by a diploma, Plin. Ep. x. 14. 121. [See p. 452.] The Romans had no public posts, as we have.

The first invention of public couriers is ascribed to Cyrus, Xenophon. Cyrop. viii. p. 496. Edit. Hutchinson. Augustus first introduced them among the Romans, Suet. Aug. 49. Plutarch. Galb. But they were employed only to forward the public despatches, or to convey political intelligence, Plin. Ep. x. 120. It is surprising they were not sooner used for the purposes of commerce and private communication. * Lewis XI. first established them in France, in the year 1474: but it was not till the first of Charles II., anno 1660, that the post-office was settled in England by act of parliament, Rapin, vol. ii. 623. fol. ed.; and three years after, the revenues arising from it, when settled on the duke of York, amounted only to 20,000l., Ib. 680.

Near the public ways the Romans usually placed their sepulchres. See p. 422.

The streets of the city were also called VIÆ, the cross streets, VIE TRANSVERSE, Cic. Verr. iv. 53.; thus, Via SACRA, Horat. Sat. i. 9. t NOVA, Ovid. Fast. vi. 395., &c. paved with flint, Juvenal. iii. 270., yet usually dirty, Id. 247. Mart. v. 23. 6. vii. 60.

The Roman ways were sometimes dug through mountains, as the grotto of Puzzoli, Crypta Puteolana, between Puteoli and Naples ; and carried over the broadest rivers by bridges, (hence facere pontem in fluvio; fluvium ponte jungere vel committere; pontem fluvio imponere, indere vel injicere.)

The ancient bridges of Rome were eight in number.‡-1. Pons SUBLICIUS vel Æmilius §; so called, because first made of wood (from sublicæ, stakes, Liv. i. 33.), and afterwards of stone by Æmilius

“Cicero (ad Quint. iii. 1. 5.) received at Rome, on the 28th Sept. (iv. Kal. Oct.), a letter, dated in Britain the first of the same month. It had been forwarded, either through civil letter-carriers, or through a military channel; and, considering the passage by sea, and the crossing of the Alps, or a troublesome circuit to avoid the latter, the twenty-six days of actual travelling seem wonderfully few.” (Blair, p. 261.) Cesarius, a magistrate of rank, in the time of Theodosius, went post from Antioch to Constantinople. He began his journey at night; was in Cappadocia, 165 miles from Antioch, the ensuing evening, and arrived at Constantinople the sixth day about noon; the whole distance being 725 Roman, or 665 English miles." -Gibbon, vol. i. ch. 2.

"It seems to have been destined for common religious processions between the two towns on the Quirinal and the Palatine.". Nieb. i. p. 250.

Bridges were the usual places of resort for beggars at Rome: thus Juv. iv. 116., in allusion to Catullus, who had been raised from a low origin to be the parasite of Domitian, styles him, Cæcus adulator, dirusque a ponte satelles.' Again, xiv. 134., he says of a miser's fare, Invitatus ad hæc aliquis de ponte negaret.'

"This was the first bridge ever constructed in Rome, and was the work of Ancus Martius, the fourth king. It was here that Horatius Cocles withstood the army of Porsena, till the bridge was broken down behind him. It was then repaired, but still in wood, and without any nails, so that it might be taken to pieces when required, Plin. xxxvi. 23. It was destroyed by a great flood in the reign of Augustus; and since Plutarch informs us, that it was rebuilt in stone by Emilius, it is probable that this took place in the year after the inundation, when P. Em. Lepidus was censor. Hence, the bridge is sometimes called Pons Æmilius, or Pous Lepidi.' - Burton's Antiq. i. p. 342.

BRIDGE OVER THE DANUBE, ETC.

513

Lepidus; some vestiges of it still remain at the foot of Mount Aventine [which it connected with the Janiculum]: 2. Pons FABRICIUS, which led to an isle in the Tiber (insula), first built of stone, IA. 692, [Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 36.] Dio. 37. 45.; and 3. CESTIUS, which led from the island: 4. SENATORIUS vel Palatinus, near Mount Palatine; some arches of it are still standing *; 5. Pons JANICULI, vel -aris [or Janiculensis] ; so named, because it led to the Janiculum; still standing: 6. Pons TRIUMPHALIS, which those who triumphed passed in going to the Capitol; only a few vestiges of it remain 7. Pons ELIUS, built by Elius Hadrianus; still standing; the largest and most beautiful bridge in Rome [opening a communication from the Campus Martius to his Mausoleum] 8. Pons MILVIUS, without the city; now called Ponte molle. [Liv. xxvii. 51.]

There are several bridges on the Anio or Teverone: the most considerable of which is Pons NARSIS; so called, because rebuilt by the eunuch Narses, after it had been destroyed by Totila, king of the Goths.

About sixty miles from Rome, on the Flaminian way, in the country of the Sabines, was Pons NARNIENSIS, which joined two mountains, near Narnia, or Narni, over the river Nar, built by Augustus, of stupendous height and size: vestiges of it still remain; one arch entire, about 100 feet high, and 150 feet wide.

But the most magnificent Roman bridge, and perhaps the most wonderful ever made in the world, was the bridge of Trajan over the Danube; raised on twenty piers of hewn stone, 150 feet from the foundation, 60 feet broad, and 170 feet distant from one another, extending in length about a mile. But this stupendous work was demolished, by the succeeding emperor, Hadrian, who ordered the upper part and the arches to be taken down, under pretext that it might not serve as a passage to the Barbarians, if they should become masters of it, Dio. İviii. 13.; but in reality, as some writers say, through envy, because he despaired of being able to raise any work comparable to it. Some of the pillars are still standing.

There was a bridge at Nismes (Ñemausum), in France, which supported an aqueduct over the river Gardon, consisting of three rows of arches; several of which still remain entire, and are esteemed one of the most elegant monuments of Roman magnificence. The stones are of an extraordinary size, some of them twenty feet long; said to to have been joined together, without cement, by ligaments of iron. The first row of arches was 438 feet long; the second, 746; the third and highest, 805; the height of the three from the water, 182 feet.

In the time of Trajan, a noble bridge was built over the Tagus, or Tayo, near Alcantara, in Spain, part of which is still standing. It consisted of six arches, 80 feet broad each, and some of them 200 feet high above the water, extending in length 660 feet.

The largest single-arched bridge known is over the river Elaver, or Allier, in France, called Pons veteris Brivatis, near the city of Brioude,

"M. Fulvius began it, A. U. 574, and it was finished by Scipio Africanus and L. Mummius, A. U. 611. It was the first stone bridge built in Rome." Burton's Antiq. i. p. 341.

L L

514

LIMITS OF THE EMPIRE UNDER AUGUSTUS.

in Auvergne, from Briva, the name of a bridge among the ancient Gauls. The pillars stand on two rocks, at the distance of 195 feet. The arch is 84 feet high above the water.

Of temporary bridges, the most famous was that of Cæsar over the Rhine, constructed of wood, Cas. B. G. iv. 17.

The Romans often made bridges of rafts or boats, joined to one another, Cæs. B. G. i. 12. viii. 14. Flor. iii. 3., and sometimes of empty casks, or leathern bottles, Herodian. viii. Zosim. iii. Lucan, iv. 420., as the Greeks, Xenoph. Cyr. iii.*

LIMITS OF THE EMPIRE.

THE limits which Augustus set to the Roman Empire, and in his testament advised his successors not to go beyond, Tacit. Ann. i. 11. Dio. lvi. 33. 41., were the Atlantic Ocean on the west, and the Euphrates on the east; on the north, the Danube and the Rhine; and on the south, the cataracts of the Nile, the deserts of Africa, and Mount Atlas; including the whole Mediterranean Sea, and the best part of the then known world. So that the Romans were not without foundation called RERUM DOMINI, Virg. Æn. i. 282., and Rome, Lux ORBIS TERRARUM ATQUE ARX OMNIUM GENTIUM, Cic. Cat. iv. 6.; TERRARUM DEA GENTIUMQUE Roma, CUI PAR EST NIHil, et nihil SECUNDUM, Mart. xii. 8.; CAPUT ORBIS TERRARUM, Liv. i. 16. xxi. 30.; CAPUT RERUM, Tacit. Hist. ii. 32. Liv. i. 45. ; DOMINA ROMA, Horat. Od. iv. 14. 44.; PRINCEPS URBIUM, Id. iii. 13.; REGIA, Ep. i. 7. 44.; PULCHERRIMA RERUM, Virg. G. ii. 533.; MAXIMA RERUM, En. vii. 602.: Sed quæ de septem totum circumspicit orbem Montibus, IMPERII ROMA DEUMQUE, (i. e. principum v. imperatorum) LOCUS, Ovid. Trist. i. 4. 69. Dumque suis victrix omnem de montibus orbem Prospiciet domitum, MARTIA ROMA, legar, Ib. iii. 7. 51. CAPUT MUNDI RERUMQUE POTESTAS, Lucan. ii. 136. Septem URBS alta jugis TOTI QUE PRÆSIDET ORBI, Propert. ii. 11. 57.

Agreeably to the advice of Augustus, few additions were made to the empire after his time. Trajan subdued Dacia, north of the Danube, and Mesopotamia and Armenia, east of the Euphrates, Eutrop. viii. 2. The south of Britain was reduced by Ostorius, under Claudius; and the Roman dominion was extended to the Frith of Forth, and the Clyde, by Agricola, under Domitian, Tacit. Agric. 23. But what is remarkable, the whole force of the empire, although exerted to the utmost under Severus, one of its most warlike princes, could not totally subdue the nation of the Caledonians, whose invin

To those who reflect on the high degree of opulence and civilisation to which the Romans had attained towards the close of the republic, it must afford matter of surprise to learn that the city contained no public hospitals for the reception of the indigent. The temple of Esculapius was, indeed, open to the infirm ; and many, of every rank, who laboured under disease, were carried thither, to invoke the god of health; but no human aid was afforded them; and it was not until the beginning of the fifth century, that the first infirmary was crected by a Christian lady, named Fabiola. Her benevolent example was soon followed by others of her sect; and not only in Rome, but throughout Europe, the first establishment of these humane institutions was due to the introduction of Christianity.". Sketches, &c. p. 195.