placed below (cylindris lignisque teretibus et rotundis subjectis), called PALANGES, vel -gæ, Cæs. B. C. ii., or SCUTULÆ, Ibid. iii. 34., and according to some, lapsus rotarum; but others more properly take this phrase for rota labentes, wheels, Virg. Æn. ii. 236.

Archimedes invented a wonderful machine for this purpose, called HELIX. Athen. v. Plutarch. in Marcell. - Sil. Ital. xiv. 352.

Sometimes ships were conveyed for a considerable space by land, Liv. xxv. 11. Sil. xii. 441. Suet. Cal. 47., and for that purpose they were sometimes so made, that they might be taken to pieces, Curt. viii. 10. Justin. xxxii. 3., a practice still in use. Augustus is said to have transported some ships from the open sea to the Ambracian gulf near Actium, on a kind of wall covered with raw hides of oxen, Dio. 1. 12.; in like manner over the Isthmus of Corinth, Id. li. 5. Strab. viii. 335. So Trajan, from the Euphrates to the Tigris, Id. xlviii. 28.

The signal for embarking was given with the trumpet, Lucan. ii. 690. They embarked (conscendebant) in a certain order, the mariners first and then the soldiers, Liv. xxix. 25. xxii. 16. They also sailed in a certain order, Virg. Æn. v. 833., the light vessels usually foremost, then the fleet or ships of war, and after them the ships of burden. But this order was often changed, Liv. passim.

When they approached the place of their destination, they were very attentive to the objects they first saw, in the same manner as to omens at their departure, Virg. Æn. iii. 537. Liv. xxix. 27. xxx. 25. When they reached the shore (terram appulerant), and landed (exposuerant) the troops, prayers and sacrifices again were made, Liv. Xxxvii. 14. 47.

If the country was hostile, and there was no proper harbour, they made a naval camp (castra navalia vel nautica), and drew up their ships on land (subducebant), Liv. xxx. 9, 10. xxiii. 28. Cæs. B. G. iv. 21. They did so, especially if they were to winter there, Liv. xxxvi. 45. xxxviii. 8. But if they were to remain only for a short time, the fleet was stationed in some convenient place (ad anchoram stabat, vel in statione tenebatur), not far from land, Liv. xxxi. 23. xxxvii. 15. xxiv. 17. Cæs. B. C. iii. 6. iv. 21. B. Alex. 25.

Harbours (PORTUS) were most strongly fortified, especially at the entrance (aditus vel introitus; os, ostium, vel fauces, Virg. Æn. i. 404. Cic. et Liv.). The two sides of which, or the piers, were called CORNUA, Cic. Att. ix. 14. Lucan. ii. 615. 706., or BRACHIA, Plin. Ep. vi. 31. Suet. Claud. 20. Liv. xxxi. 26. ; on the extremities were erected bulwarks and towers, Vitruv. v. 11. There was usually also a watch-tower (PHAROS, plur. -i), Ibid., with lights to direct the course of ships in the night-time, as at Alexandria in Egypt, Cæs. B. C. iii. ult. Plin. xxxvi. 12., at Ostia and Ravenna, Ibid., at Capreæ, Brundusium, and other places, Suet. Tib. 74. Cal. 46. Stat. Sylv. iii. 5. 100. A chain sometimes was drawn across as a barrier or boom (claustrum), Frontin. Stratagem. i. 5, 6.

Harbours were naturally formed at the mouths of rivers; hence the name of OSTIA at the mouth of the Tiber [the harbour of Rome, built by Ancus Martius], Serv. ad Virg. Æn. v. 281. Liv. i. 33. xxvi. 19. Dionys. iii. 45. Ovid calls the seven mouths of the Nile, septem PORTUS, Her. xiv. 107. Amor. ii. 13. 10.

356

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS

TRADING VESSELS.

Harbours made by art (manu vel arte) were called COTHONES, vel -NA, -orum, Serv. ad Virg. Æn. i. 431. Festus.

Adjoining to the harbour were docks (NAVALIA, -ium), where the ships were laid up (subducta), careened and refitted (refecta), Cic. Off. ii. 17. Liv. xxxvii. 10. Cæs. B. C. ii. 3, 4. Virg. Æn. iv. 593. Ovid. Amor. ii. 9. 21.

Fleets about to engage were arranged in a manner similar to armies on land. Certain ships were placed in the centre (media acies), others in the right wing (dextrum cornu), and others in the left; some as a reserve (subsidio, naves subsidiaria), Hirt. de Bell. Al. 10. Liv. xxxvii. 23. 29. xxxvi. 44. We find them sometimes disposed in the form of a wedge, a forceps, and a circle, Polyb. i. Polyæn. iii. Thucyd. ii., but most frequently of a semicircle or half-moon, Veget. iv. 45. Sil. xiv. 370.

Before the battle, sacrifices and prayers were made as on land; the admiral sailed round the fleet in a light galley (navis actuaria), and exhorted the men.

The soldiers and sailors made ready (se expediebant) for action; they furled the sails and adjusted the rigging; for they never chose to fight but in calm weather, Liv. xxvi. 39.

A red flag was displayed from the admiral's ship, as a signal to engage. The trumpets in it and all the other ships were sounded, Sil. xiv. 372., and a shout raised by all the crews, Lucan. iii. 540. Dio. xlix. 9.

The combatants endeavoured to disable or sink the ships of the enemy, by sweeping off (detergendo) the oars, or by striking them with their beaks, chiefly on the sides, Dio. 1. 29. They grappled with them by means of certain machines called crows (CORVI), iron hands or hooks (FERREE MANUSs), Lucan. iii. 635., drags or grappling irons (HARPAGONES, i. e. asseres ferreo unco præfixi), &c. and fought as on land, Flor. ii. 2. Liv. xxvi. 39. xxx. 10. Cæs. B. G. i. 52. Curt. iv. 9. Lucan. xi. 712. Dio. xxxix. 43. xlix. 1.3. &c. [Polyb. i. 22.] They sometimes also employed fire-ships, Hirt. B. Alex. 11., or threw firebrands, and pots full of coals and sulphur, with various other combustibles, Stuppea flamma manu, telisque volatile ferrum spargitur, Virg. Æn. viii. 694., which were so successfully employed by Augus tus at the battle of Actium, that most of Antony's fleet was thereby destroyed, Dio. 1. 29. 34. 35. Hence Vix una sospes navis ab ignibus, Horat. Od. i. 37. 13.

In sieges they joined vessels together, and erected on them various engines, Curt. iv. 13. Liv. xxiv. 34. xxvi. 26. Cæs. B. C. iii. 34, or sunk vessels to block up their harbours, Ibid. et Liv. xxxv. 11. 14. The ships of the victorious fleet, when they returned home, had their prows decked with laurel, and resounded with triumphant music.

Dio. li. 5.

The prizes distributed after a victory at sea were much the same as on land. (See p. 334.) Also naval punishments, pay, and provisions, &c. Liv. xxiii. 21. 48.

The trading vessels of the ancients were in general much inferior in size to those of the moderns. Cicero mentions a number of ships of burden, none of which was below 2000 amphoræ (quarum minor nulla erat duûm millium amphorûm), i. e. about fifty-six tons, which he

seems to have thought a large ship, Cic. Fam. xii. 15. There were, however, some ships of enormous bulk. One built by Ptolemy is said to have been 230 cubits, i. e. 420 feet long, and another 300 feet; the tonnage of the former 7182, and of the latter, 3197, Athenæus. The ship which brought from Egypt the great obelisk that stood in the Circus of the Vatican in the time of Caligula, besides the obelisk itself, had 120,000 modii of lentes, lentiles, a kind of pulse, for ballast, about 1138 tons, Plin. xvi. 40. s. 76.

CUSTOMS OF THE ROMANS.

1. THE ROMAN DRESS.

THE distinguishing part of the Roman dress was the TOGA or gown, as that of the Greeks was the Pallium, Suet. Aug. 98., and of the Gauls, Bracce, breeches, Suet. Jul. 80. Claud. 15. Plin. Epist. v. 11., whence the Romans were called GENS TOGATA, Virg. Æn. i. 286. Suet. Aug. 40., or TOGATI, Cic. Rosc. Am. 46. Verr. i. 29. ii. 62. Orat. i. 24. iii. 11. Sallust. Jug. 21. Tacit. Hist. ii. 20., and the Greeks, or in general those who were not Romans, PALLIATI, Suet. Cæs. 4. 8. Cic. Rabir. Post. 9. Phil. v. 5., and Gallia Cisalpina, when admitted into the rights of citizens, was called TOGATA, Cic. Phil. viii. 9. Hence also Fabula Togatæ et Palliatæ. (See p. 307.) As the toga was the robe of peace, togati is often opposed to armati, Liv. iii. 10. 50. iv. 10. Cic. Cæcin. 15. Off. i. 23. Pis. 3.; and as it was chiefly worn in the city (ibi, sc. rure, nulla necessitas toga, Plin. Ep. v. 6.) it is sometimes opposed to RUSTICI, Plin. vi. 30.

The Romans were particularly careful in foreign countries always to appear dressed in the toga, Cic. Rabir. 10., but this was not always done. Some wore the Greek dress; as Scipio in Sicily, Tac. Ann. ii. 59. So the Emperor Claudius at Naples, Dio. lxvi. 6.

The TOGA (a tegendo, quòd corpus tegat, Varro) was a loose (laxa), flowing (fluitans), woollen robe, which covered the whole body, round and close at the bottom (ab imo), but open at the top down to the girdle (ad cincturam), without sleeves; so that the right arm was at liberty, and the left supported a part (lacinia, a flap or lappet) of the toga, which was drawn up (subducebatur) and thrown back over the left shoulder, and thus formed what was called SINUS, a fold or cavity upon the breast, in which things might be carried, Plin. xv. 18. Gell. iv. 18., and with which the face or head might be covered, Suet. Jul. 82. Liv. viii. 9. Hence Fabius, the Roman ambassador, when he denounced war in the senate of Carthage, is said to have poured out (sinum effudisse), Liv. xxi. 18., or shaken out the lap of his toga (excussisse toga gremium), Flor. ii. 6. Dionysius says the form of the toga was semicircular, iii. 61.

The toga in later times had several folds, but anciently few or none (veteribus nulli sinus), Quinctilian. xi. 3. [131. 138. 140.] These folds, when collected in a knot or centre, Virg. Æn. i. 324., were called UMBO, which is put for the toga itself, Pers. v. 33.

When a person did any work, he tucked up (succingebat) his toga, and girded it (astringebat) round him: hence Accingere se operi vel ad

358

STOLA

INSTITA PALLA ---- CYCLAS.

opus, or oftener, in the passive, accingi, to prepare, to make ready. See p. 69.

The toga of the rich and noble was finer and larger (laxior) than of the less wealthy, Horat. Epod. iv. 8. Epist. i. 18. 30. A new toga was called PEXA, when old and thread-bare, trita, Id. Ep. i. 95. Martial. ii. 44. 58.

The Romans were at great pains to adjust (componere) the toga, that it might sit properly (ne impar dissiderit) and not draggle (nec deflueret), Horat. Sat. ii. 3. 77. i. 3. 31. Epist. i. 1. 95. Quinctil. xi. 3. Macrob. Sat. ii. 9.

The form of the toga was different at different times. The Romans at first had no other dress, Gell. vii. 12. It was then straight (arcta) and close; it covered the arms and came down to the feet, Quinctil. ibid.

The toga was at first worn by women as well as men. But afterwards matrons wore a different robe [a purple tunic, with sleeves, manicata], called STOLA, with a broad border or fringe [of gold] (limbus) called INSTITA, Horat. Sat. i. 2. 29., reaching to the feet, Ovid. Art. Am. i. 32. Tibull. i. 7. 74. (whence instita is put for matrona, Ovid. Art. Am. ii. 600.) and also, as some say, when they went abroad, a loose outer robe thrown over the stola like a surtout, a mantle, or cloak, called PALLA, or Peplus, Hor. ib. 99. But the old scholiast on Horace makes palla here the same with instita, and calls it Peripodium and Tunica pallium. Some think, that this fringe constituted the only distinction between the stola and toga. It is certain, however, that the outer robe of a woman was called PALLA, Virg. En. i. 648. xi. 576. (quòd palàm et foris gerebatur, Varr. de Lat. Ling. iv. 30.)

Courtezans, and women condemned for adultery, were not permitted to wear the stola; hence called TOGATE, Horat. Sat. i. 2. 82. Juvenal. ii. 70. Martial. ii. 39. vi. 64. x. 52. Cic. Phil. ii. 18., and the modesty of matrons is called Stolatus pudor, Mart. i. 36. 8.

There was a fine robe of a circular form worn by women, called CYCLAS, -ădis, Juvenal. vi. 258. Suet. Cal. 52.

None but Roman citizens were permitted to wear the toga; and banished persons were prohibited the use of it, Plin. Epist. iv. 11. Hence toga is put for the dignity of a Roman, Horat. Od. iii. 5. 10.

The colour of the toga was white, and on festivals they usually had one newly cleaned, Ovid. [Fast. i. 80.] Trist. v. 5. 7.; hence they were said Festos (sc. dies) ALBATI celebrare, Horat. Sat. ii. 2. 61.*

* If the Toga was white, it has been asked, how could it be distinguished from the candida Toga worn by competitors for offices, or the white gowns which they wore on holidays and public festivals :

But this difficulty, says Kennet, is easily solved; for between the Toga alba and candida we may apprehend this difference, that the former was the natural colour of the wool, and the other an artificial white, with a greater lustre. Hence Polybius chooses rather to call the candidate's gown λaumpà than λeux, not of a bare white, but of a bright shining colour; for this purpose they made use of a fine kind of chalk, whence Persius took the hint of cretata ambitio. On holidays and solemn festivals among the Romans, it is reasonable to believe that all persons of any fashion put on new gowns, and those of meaner condition might perhaps chalk over their old ones.

DRESS IN MOURNING -TOGA PRÆTEXTA, ETC.

359

Candidates for offices wore a toga whitened by the fuller, TOGA CANDIDA. See p. 81.

The toga in mourning was of a black or dark colour, TOGA PULLA vel atra; hence those in mourning were called PULLATI, Suet. Aug. 44. Juvenal. iii. 213., or ATRATI, Cic. Vat. 12. But those were also called Pullati, who wore a great-coat (lacerna) instead of the toga, Suet. Aug. 40., or a mean ragged dress, Plin. Epist. vii. 17., as the vulgar or poor people, (pullatus circulus, vel turba pullata,) Quinctil. ii. 12. vi. 4.

The mourning robe of women was called RICINIUM, vel -NUS, vel RICA (quod post tergum rejiceretur), which covered the head and shoulders, Cic. Legg. ii. 23., or MAVORTES, -IS, vel -TA, Serv. in Virg. Æn. i. 268. Isid. xix. 25. They seem to have had several of these above one another, that they might throw them into the funeral piles of their husbands and friends. The Twelve Tables restricted the number to three, Cic. ibid.

The Romans seldom or never appeared at a feast in mourning, Cic. Vat. 12., nor at the public spectacles, Mart. iv. 2., nor at festivals and sacrifices, Ovid. Fast. i. 79. Horat. Sat ii. 2. 60. Pers. ii. 40.

At entertainments the more wealthy Romans laid aside the toga, and put on a particular robe, called SYNTHESIS, Martial. ii. 46. iv. 66. v. 80., which they wore all the time of the Saturnalia, because then they were continually feasting, Martial. xiv. 1. 141. Senec. Epist. 18. Nero wore it (synthesina, sc. vestis) in common, Suet. 51.

Magistrates and certain priests wore a toga bordered with purple (limbo purpureo circumdata), hence called TOGA PRÆTEXTA; as the superior magistrates, Cic. Red. in Sen. 5. Liv. xxxiv. 7. Juvenal. x. 99.; the Pontifices, the Augurs, Cic. Sext. 69.; the DECEMVIRI sacris faciundis, Liv. xxvii. 39. &c., and even private persons when they exhibited games, Cic. Pis. 4.

Generals [or consuls] when they triumphed, wore an embroidered toga [an Etrurian garment of a purple colour], called PICTA vel PALMATA, Martial. vii. 2. 7.

Young men, till they were seventeen years of age, and young women, till they were married [the children of free-born citizens], also wore a gown bordered with purple, TOGA PRÆTEXTA*, Liv. xxxiv. 7. Cic. Verr. i. 44. Cat. ii. 2. Propert. iv. 12. 33., whence they were called PRÆTEXTATI, Liv. xxii. 57. Cic. Muren. 5. Suet. Aug. 44. 94. Hence amicitia prætextata, i. e. a teneris annis, formed in youth, Martial. x. 20. But verba prætextata is put for obscana, Suet. Vesp. 22. (quòd nubentibus, depositis prætextis, a multitudine puerorum obscæna clamarentur, Festus,) Gell. ix. 10. Macrob.

The Prætexta, says Kennet, had the repute of a sacred habit. in Horace cries out to the witch Canidia who was tormenting him,

"Per hoc inane purpuræ decus precor." - Epod. v.

Hence the boy

And Persius in his fifth Satire calls it "Purpura custos." So, Quintilian: - " I allege, too, the sacred habit of the prætexta, the robe of priests and magistrates, by which we render the helplessness of childhood sacred and venerable," (in Declamat.) According to Plut. p. 30., the children of the Sabine women first received the privilege of the prætexta. It is supposed to have been open before, and laced at the bottom and the two lappets. The term prætexta is derived from this edging.