340 TRIUMPHS UNDER THE EMPERORS -MILITARY PUNISHMENTS.

in Marcell. Dionys. v. 47. viii. 9. Liv. iii. 10. xxvi. 21. xxxi. 20, xxxiii. 28. xli. 28.*

After Augustus, the honour of a triumph was in a manner confined to the emperors themselves, Dio. Ixii. 19. 23., and the generals who acted with delegated authority under their auspices only received triumphal ornaments, a kind of honour devised by Augustus, Suet. Aug. 38. Tib. 9. Dio. liv. 24. 31. Hence L. Vitellius, having taken Terracina by storm, sent a laurel branch in token of it (lauream prosperè gesta rei) to his brother, Tacit. Hist. iii. 77. As the emperors were so great, that they might despise triumphs, Flor. iv. 12. 53., so that honour was thought above the lot of a private person; such therefore usually declined it, although offered to them; as Vinicius, Dio. liii. 26., Agrippa, Id. liv. 11. 24., Plautius, Id. lx. 30. We read, however, of a triumph being granted to Belisarius, the general of Justinian, for his victories in Africa, which he celebrated at Constantinople, and which is the last instance of a triumph recorded in history, Procop. The last triumph celebrated at Rome was by Diocletian and Maximian, 20 Nov. A. D. 303. Eutrop. ix. 27., just before they resigned the empire, Ib. 28.

VII. MILITARY PUNISHMENTS.

THESE were of various kinds, either lighter or more severe.

The lighter punishments, or such as were attended with inconvenience, loss, or disgrace, were chiefly these: 1. Deprivation of pay, either in whole or in part (stipendio privari), Liv. xl. 41., the punishment of those who were often absent from their standards (INFREQUENTES), Plaut. Truc. ii. 1. 19. A soldier punished in this manner was called ÆRE DIRUTUS, Festus. Whence Cicero facetiously applies this name to a person deprived of his fortune at play, Verr. v. 13., or a bankrupt by any other means, Phil. xiii. 12.- 2. Forfeiture of their spears, CENSIO HASTARIA, Festus. 3. Removal from their tents (locum in quo tenderent mutare), Liv. xxv. 6.; sometimes to remain without the camp and without tents, Liv. x. 4., or at a distance from the winter-quarters, Liv. xxvi. 1. Val. Max. ii. 7. 15. 4. Not to recline or sit at meals with the rest (cibum stantes capere), Liv. xxiv. 16. 5. To stand before the prætorium in a loose jacket, Suet. Aug. 24. Val. Max. ii. 7. 9., and the centurions without their girdle (discincti), Liv. xxvii. 13., or to dig in that dress, Plut. in Lucull. 6. To get an allowance of barley instead of wheat (hordeo pasci), Liv. ibid. Suet. Aug. 24.-7. Degradation

* "At the termination of the servile war (A. U. C. 682), M. Crassus had the honour of an ovation; for it was thought beneath the dignity of the republic to grant a full triumph for the conquest of slaves. Crassus, however, procured a special decree of the senate, authorising him to wear on the occasion the laurel crown, which was the proper ornament of the triumph, as myrtle was of the ovation. Plut. in Crasso. In Pison. 24.". Middleton's Life of Cic. i. 82.

"Tac. Ann. i. 55. Decernitur Germanico triumphus (A. U. C. 768), ii. 64. Decrevere patres, ut Germanicus atque Drusus ovantes urbem introirent (Á. U. C. 772). Agric. § 40., triumphalia ornamenta (Agricolæ) decerni jubet: in the notes on the latter passage, Agrippa is said to have been the first who declined a triumph. (See Brotier.)"-T. Among the triumphalia insignia was a statue in the forum decked with laurel, Tac. Ann. iv. 23. xv. 72. Hist. 79.

of rank (gradûs dejectio); an exchange into an inferior corps or less honourable service (militia mutatio), Val. Max. ibid. [Tac. Hist. i. 25.]

-8. To be removed from the camp (a castris segregari), and employed in various works, Veget. iii. 4., an imposition of labour (munerum indictio), or dismission with disgrace (ignominiosè mitti), Hirt. de Bell. Afr. 54., vel EXAUCTORATIO, Plin. Ep. vi. 31. A. Gellius mentions a singular punishment, namely, of letting blood (sanguinem mittendi), x. 8. Sometimes a whole legion was deprived of its name, as that called AUGUSTA, Dio. liv. 11.

The more severe punishments were, 1. To be beaten with rods. (virgis cædi), or with a vine sapling (vite), Val. Max. ii. 7. 4. Juvenal. viii. 247.- 2. To be scourged and sold as a slave, Liv. Epit. 55.

-3. To be beaten to death with sticks, called FUSTUARIUM, the bastinado, Liv. v. 6. Cic. Phil. iii. 6. Polyb. vi. 35., which was the usual punishment of theft, desertion, perjury, &c. When a soldier was to suffer this punishment, the tribune first struck him gently with a staff, on which signal, all the soldiers of the legion fell upon him with sticks and stones, and generally killed him on the spot. If he made his escape, for he might fly, he could not however return to his native country; because no one, not even his relations, durst admit him into their houses, Polyb. ibid.- 4. To be overwhelmed with stones (lapidibus coöperiri) and hurdles (sub crate necari), Liv. i. 51. iv. 50.- 5. To be beheaded (securi percuti), Liv. ii. 59. xxviii. 29. Epit. xv., sometimes crucified, Liv. xxx. 43., and to be left unburied, Val. Max. ii. 7. 15.- 6. To be stabbed by the swords of the soldiers, Tacit. Annal. i. 44., and, under the emperors, to be exposed to wild beasts, or to be burnt alive, &c.*

Punishments were inflicted by the legionary tribunes and præfects of the allies, with their council; or by the general, from whom there was no appeal, Polyb. vi. 35.

When a number had been guilty of the same crime, as in the case of a mutiny, every tenth man was chosen by lot for punishment, which was called DECIMATIO, Liv. ii. 59. Cic. Cluent. 46. Suet. Aug. 24. Galb. 12. Tacit. Hist. i. 37. Plutarch. in Crass. Dio. xli. 35. xlvii. 42. xlix. 27. 38., or the most culpable were selected, Liv. xxviii. 29. Sometimes only the 20th man was punished, VICESIMATIO; or the 100th, CENTESIMATIO, Capitolin. in Macrin. 12.

VIII. MILITARY PAY AND DISCHARGE.

THE Roman soldiers at first received no pay (stipendium) from the public. Every one served at his own charges.†

According to the Roman laws, soldiers could not be put to the torture, unless they were deserters to the enemy (transfuga): "Is qui ad hostes transfugit et rediit, torquebitur, ad bestiasque, vel in furcam damnabitur; quamvis Milites nihil eorum patiantur:" Leg. iii. § 10. D. de Re Militari. Again: "Exauctorati torquentur ; nam pro hoste non milite habentur:" Leg. vii. D.

"Oftentimes, when the campaign was too long, the lands, especially those of the poorer plebeians, lay fallow. This occasioned borrowing, exorbitant usury, complaints, and seditions. To prevent these disorders, the senate decreed that, for the future, the infantry should have pay out of the public money, and that, to furnish this expense, a new tax should be raised, from which no citizen whatever should be

34.2

PAY OF THE SOLDIERS.

Pay was first granted to the foot, A. U. 347 [or 349], Liv. iv. 59., and [about] three years after, during the siege of Veji, to the horse, Id. v. 7. [tum primum equis merere equites cœperunt; to serve with their own horses].

It was in the time of the republic very inconsiderable, two oboli or three asses (about 24d. English) a day to a foot-soldier, the double to a centurion, and the triple to an EQUES, Polyb. vi. 37. 39. Plaut. Most. ii. 1. 10. Liv. v. 12.† Julius Cæsar doubled it, Suet. Jul. 26. Under Augustus it was ten asses (73d.), Suet. Aug. 42. Tacit. Ann. i. 17., and Domitian increased it still more, by adding three gold pieces annually, Suet. Domit. 7. What was the pay of the tribunes is uncertain; but it appears to have been considerable, Juvenal. iii. 132. The prætorian cohorts had double the pay of the common soldiers, Dio. liv. 25. Tacit. ib.

Besides pay, each soldier was furnished with clothes, and received a certain allowance (dimensum) of corn, commonly four bushels a month, the centurions double, and the equites triple, Polyb. vi. 37. But for these things a part of their pay was deducted, Tacit. Ann. i. 17. Polyb. ibid.

The allies received the same quantity of corn, except that the horse only received double of the foot. The allies were clothed and paid by their own states, Polyb. ibid.

Anciently there were no cooks permitted in the Roman army. The soldiers dressed their own victuals. They took food twice a day, at

exempt.

When the senate could now keep in the field an army as long as they pleased, they began to enlarge their ideas of conquest. During the war with the Veientes that immediately followed, the tribunes complained that this new pay was in reality the price of the people's liberty; and that the military tribunes, in detaining the soldiers in the camp during winter, had visibly no other end but to deprive the commons of so many votes. (Liv. v. 2.)” — Hooke's R. H. ii. 65.

"The Veientine war cannot have been the occasion on which the practice of giving the troops pay was first introduced: the ærarians must undoubtedly have always continued to pay pensions to the infantry, as single women and minors did to the knights: the change consisted in this, that every legionary now became entitled to pay, whereas previously the number of pensions had been limited by that of the persons liable to be charged with them: hence the deficiency was supplied out of the ærarium, from the produce of the tithe, and when this failed, by a tribute levied even from those plebeians who were themselves bound to serve.' Nieb. ii. 438.

"Not only is it utterly inconceivable that the paternal legislation which introduced the census should have allowed that, while the wealthiest knights were to receive pay, the infantry was to serve without any kind of wages; I can also bring forward unequivocal indications that both services were originally paid according to the same system. Polybius, it is well known, states the daily pay of a legionary to have been two obols, which, since he takes a drachm as equivalent to a denary, and since the latter, in paying the soldiers, even after the introduction of a small currency, was not reckoned, as in all other transactions, at 16 ases, but at 10, two obols are equal to 3 ases, and in thirty days amount to 100. This is the clopopà of 10 drachms that was levied by the last Tarquinius; that is to say, an order given to a foot-soldier for a month's pay. A knight's monthly pay, if his yearly pension of 2000 ases be divided by 12, does not come to any thing like an even sum: here, however, as in all calculations of payments in very remote times, we must have recourse to the year of 10 months, which gives us 200 ases a month; that is, just double the pay of the foot-soldier. The triple pay which the Roman knights received in aftertimes, and which was first introduced in 354 by the military tribune Cn. Cornelius Cossus (Livy, v. 12.), was undoubtedly designed as a compensation to those who served with their own horses; and it did not become general till later."— Nieb. ii. 439.

DISCHARGE FROM SERVICE-ATTACK OF TOWNS.

343

dinner and supper. A signal was publicly given for both. The dinner was a slight meal, which they commonly took standing. They indulged themselves a little more at supper. The ordinary drink of soldiers, as of slaves, was water mixed with vinegar, called Posca, Plaut. Mil. iii. 2. 23.*

When the soldiers had served out their time (stipendia legitima fecissent vel meruissent), the foot twenty years, and the horse ten, they were called EMERITI, Lucan. i. 344., and obtained their discharge. This was called MISSIO HONESTA vel JUSTA [Tac. Hist. ii. 67.]. When a soldier was discharged for some defect or bad health, it was called Missio CAUSARIA; if, from the favour of the general, he was discharged before the just time, Missio GRATIOSA, Liv. xliii. 14.; on account of some fault, IGNOMINIOSA, Hirt. de Bell. Afr. 54. D. de Re Milit. l. 13.

Augustus introduced a new kind of discharge, called EXAUCTORATIO, by which those who had served sixteen campaigns were exempted from all military duty except fighting. They were however retained (tenebantur) in the army, not with the other soldiers under standards (sub signis et aquilis), but by themselves under a flag, (sub vexillo seorsim, Tacit. Annal. i. 36., whence they were called VEXILLARII or Veterani, sometimes also SUBSIGNANI, Tacit. Hist. i. 70.) till they should receive a full discharge and the rewards of their service (præmia vel commoda militia), either in lands or money, or both, Suet. Aug. 49. Cat. 44. Cic. Phil. ii. 40. Virg. Ecl. i. 71. ix. 2—5. Horat. Sat. ii. 6. 55., which sometimes they never obtained, Tacit. Annal. i. 17. Suet. Tiber. 48. Dio. liv. 25. EXAUCTORARE is properly to free from the military oath, to disband, Liv. viii. 34. xxv. 20. Suet. Aug. 24. Vit. 10.

IX. METHOD OF ATTACKING AND DEFENDING TOWNS.

THE Romans attacked (oppugnabant) places either by a sudden assault, or if that failed (si subito impetu expugnare non poterant), they tried to reduce them by a blockade, Cæs. B. G. vii. 36.

They first surrounded a town with their troops, (coroná cingebant, vel circumdăbant, Liv. vii. 27. xxiii. 44. xxiv. 2., mania exercitu cir cumvenerunt, Sallust. Jug. 57.) and by their missive weapons endeavoured to clear the walls of defendants (nudare muros defensoribus, vel propugnatoribus) [Liv. xxi. 11.]. Then, joining their shields in the form of a testudo or tortoise (testudine factá v. actá), Liv. xliv. 9. Dio. xlix. 30., to secure themselves from the darts of the enemy, they came up to the gates (succedere portis), and tried either to undermine (subruere vel subfodere) the walls, or to scale them, Liv. x. 43. xxvi. 45. xxxiv. 39. xliv. 9. Cæs. B. G. ii. 7. Tacit. Hist. iii. 28. 31. Sallust. Jug. 94.

"It would appear, that the name was sometimes applied to other sorts of liquor; for we are told by Suetonius, that Asiaticus, the favourite freedman of Vitellius, after he first quitted the emperor, had become a vender of posca at Puteoli; and it can hardly be supposed, that the mere mixing of vinegar and water could by itself have formed a distinct branch of trade."- Henderson, p. 79.

344

MANNER OF BESIEGING A PLACE.

When a place could not be taken by storm, it was invested, Liv. ii. 11. Two lines of fortifications or intrenchments (ancipitia munimenta vel munitiones) were drawn around the place, at some distance from one another, called the lines of contravallation and circumvallation: the one against the sallies of the townsmen, and the other against attacks from without, Liv. v. 1. xxxviii. 4.

These lines were composed of a ditch and a rampart, strengthened with a parapet and battlements (lorica et pinna), and sometimes a solid wall of considerable height and thickness, flanked with towers or forts at proper distances round the whole.

At the foot of the parapet, or at its junction with the rampart (ad commissuras pluteorum atque aggeris) there sometimes was a palisade made of larger stakes cut in the form of stags' horns; hence called CERVI, to prevent the ascent of the enemy. Before that, there were several rows of trunks of trees, or large branches, sharpened at the ends (præacutis cacuminibus), called CÏPPI, fixed in trenches (fossa) above five feet deep. In front of these were dug pits (scrobes) of three feet deep, intersecting one another in the form of a quincunx, thus,

stuck thick with strong sharp stakes, and covered over with bushes to deceive the enemy, called LILIA. Before these, were placed up and down (omnibus locis disserebantur) sharp stakes about a foot long (TALEA), fixed to the ground with iron hooks called STIMULI. In front of all these, Cæsar, at Alesia, made a ditch twenty feet wide, 400 feet from the rampart, which was secured by two ditches, each fifteen feet broad, and as many deep; one of them filled with water. But this was merely a blockade, without any approaches or attacks on the city, Cas. B. G. vii. 66, 67.

Between the lines were disposed the army of the besiegers, who were thus said, Urbem obsidione claudere vel cingere, to invest.

The camp was pitched in a convenient situation to communicate with the lines.

From the inner line was raised a mount (AGGER exstruebatur), composed of earth, wood, hurdles (CRATES), and stone, which was gradually advanced (promovebatur) towards the town, always increasing in height, till it equalled or overtopped the walls. The mount which Cæsar raised against Avaricum or Bourges, was 330 feet broad, and 80 feet high, Cas. B. G. vii. 23.

The Agger or mount was secured by towers, consisting of different stories (turres contabulata), from which showers of darts and stones were discharged on the townsmen by means of engines (tormenta), called CATAPULTÆ, BALISTÆ, and SCORPIONES, to defend the work and workmen (opus et administros tutari), Sallust. Jug. 76. Of these

At the siege of Syracuse, Marcellus employed an enormous engine, mounted on eight galleys, called sambuca, from some resemblance to a musical instrument of that name, Polyb. viii. 5. Cæsar relates, that at the siege of Marseilles, the be