sulatum perductus, from being a common soldier, Senec. de Ben. v. 16.* -5. A sword (gladius vel ensis) † and two long javelins (PILA). The cavalry at first used only their ordinary clothing, for the sake of agility, that they might more easily mount their horses; for they had no stirrups (STAPIE vel STAPEDE, as they were afterwards called). When they were first used is uncertain. There is no mention of them in the classics, nor do they appear on ancient coins and statues. Neither had the Romans saddles such as ours, but certain coverings of cloth (vestis stragula) to sit on, called EPHIPPIA, Horat. Ep. i. 14. 44., vel STRATA, with which a horse was said to be cONSTRATUS, Liv. xxi. 54. These the Germans despised, Cæs. B. G. iv. 2. The Numidian horse had no bridles, Liv. xxxv. 11. But the Roman cavalry afterwards imitated the manner of the Greeks, and used nearly the same armour with the foot, Polyb. vi. 23. Thus, Pliny wrote a book de jaculatione equestri, about the art of using the javelin on horseback, Plin. Ep. iii. 4. Horsemen armed cap-a-piè, that is, completely from head to foot, were called LORICATI or CATAPHRACTI, Liv. xxxv. 48. xxxvii. 40. In each legion there were six military tribunes (see p. 170.), who commanded under the consul, each in his turn, usually a month § about, Liv. xl. 41. Horat. Sat. i. 6. 48. || In battle, a tribune seems to have had the charge of ten centuries, or about a thousand men : hence called in Greek, xirlapxos, vel 5. Under the emperors, they were chosen chiefly from among the senators and equites; hence called LATICLAVII and ANGUSTICLAVII, Suet. Oth. 10. One of these seems to be called TRIBUNUS COHORTIS, Plin. Ep. iii. 9., and their command to have lasted only six months; hence called SEMESTRIS TRIBUNATUS, Plin. Ep. iv. 4., or SEMESTRE AURUM, Juvenal. vii. 8., because they had the right of wearing a golden ring. The tribunes chose the officers who commanded the centuries (CENTURIONES vel ordinum ductores), from among the common soldiers, according to their merit, Liv. xlii. 34. Cæs. vi. 39. Lucan. i. 645. vi. 145. But this office (centurionatus) was sometimes disposed of by the consul or pro-consul through favour, and even for money, Cic. Pis. 36. The badge of a centurion was a vine-rod or sapling (VITIS), Plin. *"In the time of Cato Major promotion was by regular discipline, Cic. de Sen. 4.:- - Cum Q. Maximo quartùm consule adolescentulus miles profectus sum ad Capuam; quintoque anno post, ad Tarentum quæstor; deinde ædilis; quadriennio post factus sum prætor. In the time of Marius it was no longer so." — T. + Vegetius de Re Mil. i. 15., adds the spatha, or broadsword, which Tacitus (Ann. xii. 35.) assigns to the auxiliaries. Alluded to by Virg. Æn. i. 317.: Bina manu lato crispans hastilia ferro. § Two months, according to Polyb. vi. 34. :——κατὰ δύο γὰρ σφὰς αὐτοὺς διελόντες ἀνὰ μέρος τῆς ἑκμήνου τὴν δίμηνον ἄρχουσι. "The levy of the troops, the encampment, and much of the civil discipline, as well as the temporary command of the army, was intrusted to the Military Tribunes. They were at one time elected by the people from among the officers who had served five years in the cavalry, and ten in the infantry; but that power afterwards fell into the hands of the consuls, and was latterly exercised by the generals and governors of provinces, who seem to have bestowed the appointment from motives of mere favour."― Sketches of the Institutions of the Romans, &c. p. 79. xiv. 1. s. 3. Tacit. Ann. i. 23. Juvenal. viii. 247. [with which they corrected the lazy or refractory :] Ovid. Art. Amor. i. 527., hence vite donari, to be made a centurion; vitem poscere, to ask that office, Juvenal. xiv. 193., gerere, to bear it, Lucan. vi. 146. [“ Livy, Epit. lvii."— T.] There were two centurions in each maniple, called by the same name, but distinguished by the title prior, former, and posterior, latter, because the one was chosen and ranked before the other, Tacit. Ann. i. 32. Dionys. ix. 10. Under the emperors persons were made centurions all at once through interest, Dio. lii. 25. The centurion of the first century of the first maniple of the Triarii, was called Centurio primi pili [of the first company armed with the pilum], vel primi ordinis, Liv. xxv. 19., or Primus Pilus, primipilus *, or primopilus, Cæs. B. G. ii. 25., also primus centurio, Liv. vii. 41., qui primum pilum ducebat, ib. 13. Dux legionis (ó nyeμŵr To Táyμatos), Dionys. ix. 10. He presided over all the other centurions, and had the charge of the eagle (aquila), or chief standard of the legion, Tacit. Hist. iii. 22. Valer. Max. i. 6. 11., whereby he obtained both profit and dignity, being ranked among the equites, Juvenal. xiv. 197. Martial. i. 32. Ovid. Amor. iii. 8. 20. Pont. iv. 7. 15. ["Tac. Ann. i. 17. Hist. i. 46."-T.] He had a place in the council of war with the consul and tribunes. The other centurions were called minores ordine, Ib. 49.† The centurion of the second century of the first maniple of the Triarii was called Primipilus posterior: so the two centurions of the second maniple of the Triarii, Prior centurio, and posterior centurio secundi pili; and so on to the tenth, who was called Centurio decimi pili, prior et posterior. In like manner, Primus princeps, secundus princeps, &c. Primus hastatus, &c. Thus there was a large field for promotion in the Roman army, from a common soldier to a centurion; from being the lowest centurion of the tenth maniple of Hastati (decimus hastatus posterior), to the rank of Primipilus, Liv. xlii. 34. Any one of the chief centurions was said ducere honestum ordinem; as, Virginius, Liv. iii. 44. The centurions chose each two assistants or lieutenants, called OPTIONES, [Tac. Hist. i. 25.] Urägi, or Succenturiones, Liv. viii. 8. Festus in OPTIO; and two standard-bearers or ensigns (SIGNIFERI vel Vexillarii), Liv. vi. 8. xxxv. 5. Tac. Ann. ii. 81. Hist. i. 41. iii. 17. Cic. Divin. i. 77. He who commanded the cavalry of a legion was called PRÆFECTUS ALE, Plin. Ep. iii. 4. Each Turma had three DECURIONES or commanders of ten, but he who was first elected commanded the troop, Polyb. vi. 23., and he was called Dux TURME, Sallust. Jug. 38. Each decurio had an optio or deputy under him, Varro de Lat. Ling. iv. 16. "Different autem primus pilus et primipilus; nam primus pilus est prima centuria; primipilus vero ejus centuriæ ductor."- Facciolati. + As the Primipilus had the care of the standard ( Aquila) hence Aquilæ præesse is to bear the dignity of Primipilus; and hence, Aquila is taken in Juvenal (xiv. 197.) for the said offices. When he left this station, he bore the title of Primipilarius or Primipilaris, Tac. Ann. ii. 11. iv. 72, in the same manner as those who had discharged the greatest civil offices were styled ever after consulares, censorii, &c. Y The troops of the allies (which, as well as the horse, were called ALE, from their being stationed on the wings, Liv. xxxi. 21. Gell. xvi. 4.) had præfects (PRÆFECTI) appointed them, who commanded in the same manner as the legionary tribunes, Cæs. B. G. i. 39. Suet. Aug. 38. Claud. 35. Plin. Epist. x. 19. They were divided into cohorts, as the Roman infantry, Sallust. Jug. 58. A third part of the horse, and a fifth of the foot of the allies, were selected and posted near the consul, under the name of EXTRAORDINARII, and one troop called ABLECTI or Selecti, to serve as his lifeguards, Liv. xxxv. 5. Polyb. vi. 28. It is probable that the arms and inferior officers of the allied troops were much the same with those of the Romans. Two legions, with the due number of cavalry (cum justo equitatu), and the allies, formed what was called a consular army (exercitus consularis), about 20,000 men, Liv. x. 25., in the time of Polybius, 18,600, Polyb. vi. 24.* The consul appointed lieutenant-generals (LEGATI) under him, one or more, according to the importance of the war, Liv. ii. 29. 59. iv. 17. x. 40. 43. &c. Sall. Cat. 59. Jug. 28. Cæs. de Bell. Civ. ii. 17. iii. 55. When the consul performed any thing in person, he was said to do it by his own conduct and auspices (ductu vel imperio, et auspicio suo), Liv. iii. 1. 17. 42. xli. 17. 28. Plaut. Amph. i. I. 41. ii. 2. 25. Horat. i. 7. 27.; but if his legatus or any other person did it by his command, it was said to be done, auspicio consulis et ductu legati, by the auspices of the consul and conduct of the legatus. In this manner the emperors were said to do every thing by their auspices, although they remained at Rome, Ductu Germanici, auspiciis Tiberii, Tacit. Annal. ii. 41. Horat. Od. iv. 14. 16. 33. Ovid. Trist. ii. 173., hence auspicia, the conduct, Liv. iii. 60. † The military robe or cloak of the general was called PALUDAMENTUM, or Chlamys, of a scarlet colour bordered with purple ; sometimes worn also by the chief officers, Liv. i. 26. Plin. xvi. 3. Tac. Ann. xii. 56.; cum paludatis ducibus, officers in red coats, Juvenal vi. 399.; and, according to some, by the lictors who attended the consul in war, Liv. xli. 10. xlv. 39. CHLAMYS was likewise the name of a travelling dress (vestis viatoria): hence Chlamydatus, a traveller or foreigner, Plaut. Pseud. iv. 2. S. sc. 7. 49. The military cloak of the officers and soldiers was called SAGUM, also Chlamys, Plaut. Rud. ii. 2. 9., an open robe drawn over the other clothes and fastened with a clasp, Suet. Aug. 26., opposed to toga, the robe of peace. When there was a war in Italy (in tumultu), all the citizens put on the sagum: hence Est in sagis civitas, Cic. Phil. viii. 11., sumere saga, ad saga ire; et redire ad togas, Id. v. 12. xiv. 1, also put for the general's robe; thus, Punico lugubre mutavit sagum, i. e. deposuit coccineam chlamydem Antonius, et accepit nigram, laid aside his purple robe and put on mourning, Horat. Epod. ix. 27. The proportions were, in Roman troops, 6000 Legionaries of the line, 2400 Velites, and 600 Equites. In social troops, 6700 infantry of the wings, 800 cavalry of the wings, 400 extraordinary cavalry, and 1700 extraordinary infantry. + So Suetonius, when enumerating the conquests of Augustus, says, Domuit autem partim ductu, partim auspiciis suis. Aug. 21. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ROMAN CAMP. 323 III. DISCIPLINE OF THE ROMANS, THEIR MARCHES AND ENCAMPMENTS. THE discipline of the Romans was chiefly conspicuous in their marches and encampments. They never passed a night, even in the longest marches, without pitching a camp, and fortifying it with a rampart and ditch, Liv. xliv. 39. Sallust. Jug. 45. 91. Persons were always sent before to choose and mark out a proper place for that purpose (castra metari): hence called METATORES; thus, Alteris castris vel secundis, is put for altero die, the second day; tertiis castris, quintis castris, &c. Tacit. Hist. iii. 15. iv. 71. Cæs. B. G. vii. 36. When the army stayed but one night in the same camp, or even two or three nights, it was simply called castra, and in later ages MANSIO; which word is also put for the journey of one day, Plin. xii. 14., or for an inn, Suet. Tit. 10., as oralus among the Greeks. When an army remained for a considerable time in the same place, it was called Castra STATIVA, a standing camp, ÆSTIVA, a summer camp; and HIBERNA, a winter camp (which was first used in the siege of Veji), Liv. v. 2. Hibernacula ædificavit, Id. xxiii. 39. The winter quarters of the Romans were strongly fortified, and furnished, particularly under the emperors, with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses (armaria), workshops (fabrica), an infirmary (valetudinarium), &c. Hence from them many towns in Europe are supposed to have had their origin; in England particularly, those whose names end in cester or chester.* The form of the Roman camp was a square (quadrata), and always of the same figure, Polyb. vi. 25. In later ages, in imitation of the Greeks, they sometimes made it circular, or adapted it to the nature of the ground, Veget. i. 23. It was surrounded with a ditch (FOSSA), usually nine feet deep and twelve feet broad, and a rampart (VALLUM), composed of the earth dug from the ditch (AGGER), and sharp stakes (sudes, VALLI vel pali), stuck into it, Virg. G. ii. 25. Cæs. B. Civ. ii. 1. 15. Polyb. xvii. 14, 15. [Distant 200 feet from the nearest tents on every side.] The camp had four gates, one on each side, called Porta PRÆTORIA, vel Extraordinaria, next the enemy, Liv. xl. 27. DECUMANA, opposite to the former (ab tergo castrorum et hosti aversa, vel ab hoste), Liv. iii. 5. x. 32. Cæs. B. G. ii. 24. Civ. iii. 79. Porta PRINCIPALIS DEXTRA and PRINCIPALIS SINISTRA, Liv. xl. 27. The camp was divided into two parts, called the upper and lower. The upper part (pars castrorum superior) was that next the porta prætoria, in which was the general's tent (ducis tabernaculum), called PRÆTORIUM, also AUGURALE, Tacit. Annal. ii. 13. xv. 30., from that part of it where he took the auspices (auguraculum, Fest. vel auguratorium, Hygin. de Castramet.) or AUGUSTALE, Quinctil. "In the cities which this people erected during their occupation of Britain, they appear to have pursued the same system which marked their regular camps. The remains now existing of one of the most extensive, Silchester, near Basingstoke, in Hampshire, partakes very much of the same nature, both as to the disposal of its walls, ditches, streets, and gates, as the consular, or rather the imperial Camp." Encycl. Metrop. art. Camp. viii. 2. 8., with a sufficient space around for his retinue, the prætorian cohort, &c. On one side of the Prætorium were the tents of lieutenant-generals, and on the other that of the Quæstor, QUÆSTORIUM, which seems anciently to have been near the porta decumana, hence called Quæstoria, Liv. x. 32. xxxiv. 47. Hard by the quæstor's tent was the FORUM, called also QUINTANA, where things were sold and meetings held, Liv. xli. 2. Suet. Ner. 26. Polyb. vi. 38. In this part of the camp were also the tents of the tribunes, prefects of the allies, the Evocati, Ablecti, and Extraordinarii, both horse and foot. But in what order they were placed does not appear from the classics. We only know that a particular place was assigned both to officers and men, with which they were all perfectly acquainted. The lower part of the camp was separated from the upper by a broad open space, which extended the whole breadth of the camp, called PRINCIPIA, Liv. vii. 12, where the tribunal of the general was erected, when he either administered justice or harangued the army, Tacit. Annal. i. 67. Hist. iii. 13., where the tribunes held their courts (jura reddebant)*, Liv. xxviii. 24., and punishments were inflicted, Suet. Oth. 1. Aug. 24. Liv. viii. 32. ix. 16., the principal standards of the army, and the altars of the gods stood, Tacit. Annal. i. 59.; also the images of the emperors, Id. iv. 2. xv. 29., by which the soldiers swore, Liv. xxvi. 48. Horat. Od. iv. 5. Ep. ii. 1. 16., and deposited their money at the standards (ad vel apud signa), as in a sacred place, Suet. Dom. 7., each a certain part of his pay, and the half of a donative, which was not restored till the end of the war, Veget. ii. 20. manner: In the lower part of the camp the troops were disposed in this The cavalry in the middle; on both sides of them the Triarii, Principes, and Hastati; next to them on both sides were the cavalry and foot of the allies, who, it is observable, were always posted in separate places, lest they should form any plots (nequid novæ rei molirentur) by being united. It is not agreed what was the place of the Velites. They are supposed to have occupied the empty space between the ramparts and the tents, which was 200 feet broad. The same may be said of the slaves (Calones vel servi), and retainers or followers of the camp (LIXE, qui exercitum sequebantur, quæstús gratia, Festus), Liv. xxiii. 16. These were little used in ancient times. A common soldier was not allowed a slave, but the officers A law was introduced by Camillus, during the siege of Veii, that no soldier should be impleaded without the camp, in order that he might always be upon the spot in case of an engagement: — The poet then "Legibus antiquis castrorum, et more Camilli Et procul a signis. Justissima Centurionum proceeds to remark the superiority which soldiers (" quos arma tegunt et balteus ambit") possess over others in obtaining speedy and expeditious justice: "Nec res atteritur longo sufflamine litis." Id. 50. Sufflamen is a metaphorical expression taken from the drag-chain of a vehicle, to express the dilatory manner in which law-business was transacted: “lentâ arenâ fori,” as he terms it in line 47. |