sters, of which class Morgans were a conspicuous example, General Purpose and Draft Horses. This was thought more convenient than classification by breeds, such as Clydesdale, Cleveland Bay, Norman, Percheron, etc., all of which, however, are seen at our fairs.

Fruit. From several quarters the fruits of Ohio have been improved. The first settlers at Marietta had among their number men interested in fruit culture. On the Western Reserve Dr. Kirtland early imported fine varieties of fruit from New Jersey. The improvements he himself made in cherries were of still greater importance. At Cincinnati Nicholas Longworth had established a vineyard upon Bald Hill as early as 1833, and succeeded in introducing fine varieties of grapes. Gradually it was seen that the climate of the southern shore of Lake Erie and the adjacent islands was better adapted to grape culture than portions of the State more inland. The important work accomplished for the improvement of the fruit of the Northwest by the gentlemen named and by Dr. John A. Warder, N. Ohmer, Geo. W. Campbell and their associates of the Ohio Pomological Society, which was organized in 1852, and of its legitimate successor, the State Horticultural Society, since 1867 cannot be estimated.

Transportation. For many years the principal means of communication between Ohio and the Eastern States was by pack-horses. As roads improved Pennsylvania wagons, drawn by four or six heavy horses, were seen. Such was the difficulty of travel that in 1806 Congress ordered the construction of a national road from Cumberland Gap to the Ohio river, and from thence to the western boundary of the State. This road was finished to the Ohio in 1825 and completed to the Indiana line in 1834. The first steamboat left Pittsburg for New Orleans in 1811. An event which greatly affected the prosperity of the Northwestern States was the opening of the Erie Canal through the State of New York in 1825. In 1824 wheat was sold in Ohio for thirty-five cents a bushel, and corn for ten cents. Soon after the completion of the Erie Canal the prices of these grains went up fifty per cent. In 1825 the Ohio Canal was begun and finished in 1830. Railroads were begun in Ohio in 1835 and the first completed in 1848. The influence of these improved facilities for transportation may be seen in the fact that in 1838 sixteen pounds of butter were required for the purchase of one pound of tea, now two pounds are adequate; then four pounds of butter would prepay one letter to the seaboard, now the same amount would pay the postage on forty letters. The price of farm produce advanced fifty per cent. on the completion of the canals. The railroads appear to have doubled the price of flour, trebled the price of pork and quadrupled the price of corn.

Underdraining has for some years past occupied the attention of Ohio farmers, but only for a few years has its importance become generally understood. It has, however, been practiced to a limited extent for a long period. In the summer of 1830 the writer of this paper advised and superintended the construction of drains upon the farm of a neighbor in Lorain county for the double purpose of making useful a piece of very wet land and to collect spring water and make it available for stock. A year later the writer, with similar objects in view, put in a drain upon land which he now owns, and the drain then made is running well at present. Horse-shoe tiles were at first made by hand, but before 1850 tile machines had come into use. In consequence of clearing off the forests and the surface drainage necessary for crops many of the smaller streams and springs have ceased to flow in the summer months. This has compelled many farmers to pump water from wells for the use of stock. Well water has an advantage over surface water in its more uniform temperature. To make the water of deep wells available for stock, pumping by wind-mills has become very common since about 1870, when the first self-adjusting wind-mill was exhibited at the Ohio State Fair.

Soiling and Ensilage are among comparatively modern improvements. The extent of the dairy interest in Ohio and the necessity of obtaining milk at all seasons to supply the needs of an increasing population had led to the practice of cutting succulent green crops to feed to animals in their stalls when the pasture is insufficient. Growing rye, oats, peas and vetches, clover, lucern, young corn, Hungarian and other millets have been employed. To secure more juicy fodder in winter a method of preserving these and other green crops has

been adopted, numerous silos have been built and many dairymen are enthusiastic in regard to the value of ensilage.

Animal Diseases.-One of the great improvements made in Ohio agriculture is due to the efforts of a number of well-educated veterinarians and the consequent better knowledge and treatment of animal diseases. It is doubtless true that a still larger supply of intelligent veterinarians is desirable and that a better knowledge of the nature and causes of disease by stock-owners is requisite, inasmuch as this is essential to securing the proper sanitary management of stock. Although in the past the State has been backward in this particular, there is reason to expect more rapid advance in the future.

Agricultural Papers.-Among the agencies which have contributed to the progress of agriculture in Ohio it is but just to place agricultural periodicals in the foremost rank. The first of these known to the writer was the Western Tiller, published in Cincinnati in 1826; The Farmer's Review, also in Cincinnati, 1831; The Ohio Farmer, by S. Medary, at Batavia in 1833; The Ohio Cultivator, by M. B. Batcham, in Columbus in 1845; Western Farmer and Gardener, Cincinnati, 1840; Western Horticultural Review, at Cincinnati, by Dr. John A. Warder; The Ohio Farmer, at Cleveland; Farm and Fireside, at Springfield; Farmer's Home, at Dayton; American Grange Bulletin, at Cincinnati.

County and State Societies.-As early as 1828 County Agricultural Societies were organized in a few counties of the State. These societies doubtless did good if only by getting men awake to see the dawn approaching. In 1846 the General Assembly passed a law for the encouragement of agriculture, which provided for the establishment of a State Board of Agriculture and made it the duty of the Board to report annually to the Legislature a detailed account of their proceedings, with a statement of the condition and needs of the agriculture of the State. It was also made the duty of the Board to hold an agricultural convention annually in Columbus, at which all the counties of the State were to be represented. This act and one of the next year provided for a permanent agricultural fund and gave a great stimulus to the formation of County Agricultural Societies. Since that time scarcely a county in the State has been without such an organization. In 1846 the Board met and organized by the choice of a President and Secretary and subsequently made their first report.

The First State Fair was held at Cincinnati on the 11th, 12th, 13th of September, 1850. At this fair Shorthorn and Hereford cattle were exhibited, and Leicester, South Down, Merino and Saxon sheep. Although the first State Fair was very different from the fairs of later date, it nevertheless made it easy to see something of the educational value of such exhibitions. Among other valuable labors inaugurated by the Board were many important investigations. Competent committees were appointed to examine and report to the Board upon such subjects as Texas Fever, Hog Cholera, Potato Rot, Hessian Fly, Wheat Midge and a multitude of others equally interesting. Essays upon almost every agricultural topic were secured. Any person who has preserved a complete set of the Agricultural Reports will find in them a comprehensive and valuable cyclopedia of information. In these annual reports were directions for the profitable management of county societies and also of farmers' clubs. Such instruction has saved many organizations from the more tedious process of learning only by experience. Several State associations, each devoted to some special interest, have heartily co-operated with the State Board and held their annual meetings near the time of the Agricultural Convention for the mutual convenience of their members. Such are the State Horticultural Society, the Wool-Growers and Dairymen's Associations, various associations of Cattle-men, Swine Breeders, Bee Keepers, Tile Makers, Forestry Bureau, etc., each representing a special field, but working together for the general good.

Ohio Agricultural College.-Scarcely any subject has excited more interest in Ohio than that of agricultural education. Mr. Allen Trimble, first President of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture, in his Annual Report to the General Assembly in 1848, recommended the immediate establishment of an Agricultural College in Ohio, in which young farmers should obtain not only a literary and scientific but an agricultural education thoroughly practical. In 1854 the Ohio Agricultural College was established. James H. Fairchild, James Dascomb, John S. Newberry

and N. S. Townshend arranged to give annually at Oberlin winter courses of lectures to young farmers upon branches of science most intimately related to agriculture, viz., geology, chemistry, botany, comparative anatomy, physiology, mechanics, book-keeping and meteorology, etc. These lectures were given for three winters in succession, twice at Oberlin and once at Cleveland. An effort was then made to interest the Ohio State Board of Agriculture and the General Assembly in the enterprise. The State Board appointed a committee of their number upon the subject; this committee made a favorable report, and the Board then asked the Legislature for a sum sufficient to pay the expenses of the college at Cleveland and make its instruction free to all. This request was not granted, and soon after the first Ohio Agricultural College was closed.

Farmers' College.-Pleasant Hill Academy was opened by Freeman G. Cary in 1833 and prospered for a dozen years or more. Mr. Cary then proposed to change the name of the academy to Farmers' College and to adapt the course of study specially to the education of young farmers. A fund was raised by the sale of shares, a suitable farm was purchased, commodious buildings erected and a large attendance of pupils secured. Mr. Trimble, in his second report to the General Assembly, as President of the State Board of Agriculture, refers to Farmers' College and expresses the hope that the example found in this institution will be followed in other parts of the State. In his third annual report Mr. Trimble corrects the statements made in the former report in regard to Farmers' College; he had learned that the agricultural department contemplated was not yet established. In September, 1856, that department, under three appropriate professorships, went into operation. Mr. Cary had earnestly endeavored to impress upon the farmers of Ohio the necessity of special agricultural education, and had made great efforts to supply the need. The Ohio Agricultural College had opened at Oberlin in 1854 and therefore has an earlier date.

Land Grant and Ohio State University. In 1862 Congress passed an act donating lands to the several States and Territories which may provide colleges for instruction in agriculture and the mechanic arts. The Ohio State Board of Agriculture promptly sought to secure for the State of Ohio the benefits of the donation. Notwithstanding the efforts of the Board and many other citizens the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College was not put in operation until September, 1873. In 1870 the law was passed to establish such a college, a Board of Trustees was appointed, a farm purchased, buildings erected, a faculty chosen and the following departments established:"

1. Agriculture.

2. Mechanic Arts.

3. Mathematics and Physics.

4. General and Applied Chemistry.

5. Geology, Mining and Metallurgy.

6. Zoology and Veterinary Science.

7. Botany, Vegetable Physiology and Horticulture.

8. English Language and Literature.

9. Modern and Ancient Languages.

10. Political Economy and Civil Polity.

In May, 1878, the General Assembly changed the name of the Ohio Agricult ural and Mechanical College to Ohio State University, probably thinking that the latter name better expressed the character of an institution having so many departments. The University has been in successful operation for fifteen years. Its first class of six graduated in 1878; the class which graduated in 1886 numbered twenty-five. The teaching force and means for practical illustration are steadily increasing. New departments have been added-Civil, Mechanical and Mining Engineering, Agricultural Chemistry, Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Pharmacy, etc. Two courses of study have been arranged for young farmers: the first occupies four years and secures a degree; the second, or short agricultural course, is completed in two years.

A Geological Survey of Ohio was ordered by the General Assembly in 1836 and some preliminary surveys were made and reports published. The Legislature of 1838 failed to make an appropriation for the continuance of the work. In March, 1869, a law was passed providing for a complete geological, agricultural and

mineralogical survey of each and every county of the State. In pursuance of this law surveys have been made. Six volumes of reports, in addition to two volumes specially devoted to Paleontology, have already been published. These reports have been of great service and have given great satisfaction.

The Grange, or Order of Patrons of Husbandry, from its beginning had a most happy influence upon the families which have enjoyed its benefits. It has demonstrated to farmers the good results of organization and co-operation. A long way in advance of many other associations, the Grange admits women to equal membership and promotes the best interests of families by enlisting fathers, mothers and children in the same pursuits and enjoyments. The Ohio State Grange was organized in 1872. The National Grange, which was in existence some five or six years earlier, declares its purpose to be: "To develop a better and higher manhood and womanhood among ourselves, to enhance the comforts and attractions of our homes and strengthen our attachments to our pursuits, to foster mutual understanding and co-operation, to maintain inviolate our laws, and to emulate each other in labor to hasten the good time coming," etc.

Institutes. In the winter of 1880 and 1881 Farmers' Institutes were held in some twenty-five or more different counties of the State. Every succeeding year the number of institutes and the interest in them has increased. Each institute usually continues for two days. The time is occupied by addresses and papers on topics related to agriculture and with questions and discussions upon subjects of special interest. The institutes were generally held under the management of the County Agricultural Societies. The Ohio State Board of Agriculture and the Ohio State University shared the labor when desired to do so. The effect of these meetings of farmers has been highly beneficial in very many respects.

The Ohio Experiment Station was established by the Legislature in April, 1882, and placed in charge of a Board of Control. The first annual report was made by the Director, W. R. Lazenby, in December of the same year. Since that time successive annual reports and occasional bulletins have been published and distributed. The investigations reported relate to grain-raising, stock-farming, dairy husbandry, fruit and vegetable culture and forestry. Appropriations made by the State were limited and the work of the station was to the same extent restricted. In March, 1887, Congress made liberal appropriations for experiment stations, which, however, were not available until March, 1888. The congressional allowance puts new life into the work and inspires the hope that a period of rapid progress has been inaugurated. The Ohio Experiment Station is located upon the farm of the Ohio State University. This close association, it is believed, will prove beneficial to both institutions.

THE MINES AND MINING RESOURCES OF OHIO.

BY ANDREW ROY, LATE STATE INSPECTOR OF MINES.

ANDREW ROY was born in Lanarkshire, Scotland, in 1834. He attended school until he was eight years of age and then went to work in the coal mines. When he was sixteen his father and family moved to America and settled in the coal regions of Maryland. Young Roy remained with his parents a few years and then went west, working in the mines of a number of Western States. In 1860, together with a friend, he was digging coal in Arkansas. The booming of the rebel cannon before Fort Sumter shook the woods of that half-savage State. Roy saw the gathering clouds of civil war and did not hesitate a moment. He threw down his tools, hastened east and joined a Pennsylvania company of volunteers. He served under McClellan in the bloody battles before Richmond, was shot through the body at Gaines' Hill and was left as dead by the retreating Federals. The rebels, however, found him yet alive and sent him back to Libby Prison. In a few months he was paroled, returned home, had a surgical operation performed on his wound and recovered. He married Janet Watson in 1864, and a few years later moved to Ohio. After the dreadful Avondale disaster Mr. Roy was sent by the miners to Columbus to urge upon the legislature the necessity of mining laws for Ohio. Governor Hayes appointed him to serve with two others on a commission to investigate the condition of the mines and report the same to the legislature.

The result of the report was the passage of mining laws. Governor Allen appointed Roy mine inspector for four years, and Governor Foster did the same. In 1884 Mr. Roy retired from the office, enjoy. ing the respect of the miners of the State. During the time he held the inspector's office he gained a considerable reputation as a geologist. His efforts on behalf of the miners were unceasing, and he has been called the father of mining laws in Ohio. He is the author of several books on coal-mining and frequently contributes articles to the noted mining journals of the country. At present (1888) he resides at Glen Roy, a mining village in Jackson county, Ohio.

THE Ohio coal-field is part of the great Appalachian coal-belt which extends from Pennsylvania to Georgia and which runs through portions of nine different States, namely: Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia. The State of Ohio contains about 12,000 square miles of coal-producing strata, the line of outcrop extending through the counties of Trumbull, Geauga, Portage, Summit, Medina, Wayne, Holmes, Coshocton, Licking, Perry, Hocking, Vinton, Jackson, and Scioto. Outliers of coal strata are found in several counties west and north of this line, but they contain little coal of any value.

The coal measures of the State, as well as all the rocks of the geological scale, dip to the east at an average rate of twenty feet to the mile. Hence the eastern margin of the coal strata in the high land bordering the Ohio river in the counties of Belmont, Monroe, Washington and Meigs, attains a thickness of 1,400 to 1,600 feet.

These strata are separated into three divisions by our geologists and are known as the "lower measures," the "barren measures," and the " upper measures." The lower measures are about 550 feet thick, the barren measures 450 to 600 feet thick, and the upper measures about 600 feet thick.

In the lower measures there are twelve to fourteen different beds of coal which,