takings. The shares in the stocks of these companies are generally small, and they afford a ready means for mechanics, labourers, and persons of all classes, investing their savings with advantage.

The United States are at present the second commercial nation in the world. The exports for 1815. and 1816 averaged eighty-five millions of dollars. Those of France, about the year 1787, have been estimated at five hundred and forty millions of livres, or one hundred millions of dollars, but were so much reduced by the Revolution, that, in 1800, they amounted only to two hundred and seventy-one millions of livres, or fifty millions of dollars. The official value of the exports of Britain for 1815 and 1816 averaged fifty-six millions Sterling. Those of Russia, in 1805, were stated at seventy-two millions of roubles, but, from the fluctuation in the value of the currency, the real amount is very uncertain. The tonnage of the United States, for 1816, was 1,370,000 tons, which exceeds that of Great Britain in 1800, and is probably more than double that of all the nations of the north of Europe at the present day. American commerce cannot be accurately traced before the Revolution. But it appears from Lord Sheffield's statements, that the average value of exports from the colonies to England, from 1700 to 1710, was L. 265,000 Sterling; from 1730 to 1740, L. 670,000; and from 1760 to 1770, L. 1,044,000. From these data it may be concluded, that the trade of the colonies had nearly quadrupled in the first seventy years of the last century, or had doubled in thirty-five years.

The progress of the

We find, also, that the total exports in 1769, to all countries, were about thirteen millions of dollars, and in 1817 they were eighty-seven millions. It follows, that, within this latter period, the commerce of the United States has doubled every eighteen years. The high amount of exports in 1806 and 1807 being occasioned by temporary circumstances, is disregarded in this calculation.

The rate of wages, and the facility of procuring land, must long operate as a discouragement to manufactures in the United States. Those which have succeeded best are chiefly of articles of a bulky kind, or those in which the labour forms a small part of the value. Cabinet ware and iron work of a large kind are executed at least as well as in England. Spinning, weaving, and the fabrication of various articles, both for home consumption and exportation, were always carried on, in the families of farmers and mechanics, chiefly by the women; maple sugar is almost entirely made in that way. These domestic manufactures are so much more favourable to morals and private happiness than those carried on in large establishments, that it is to be regretted the one cannot be universally substituted for the other. But the progress of society necessarily operates a change in the opposite direction. When the war in 1812 cut off the supply of foreign commodities, the rapidity with which every species of manufacture sprung up in the country, is one of the most surprising facts in American history. It not only proves the great extent of our resources, but shows a degree of enterprise, inventiveness, and versa

tility of talent, in our citizens, which is altogether unparalleled. For in what country of Europe could men have been found who could so readily assume new habits, and succeed so well in intricate and difficult processes, with which they were formerly unacquainted? So rapid was the progress of manufactures during the late war, that the cotton consumed in them, which, in 1810, was only 10,000 bales, amounted, in 1815, to 90,000. The manufactures that year certainly employed a capital exceeding one hundred millions of dollars and though they have been depressed by the influx of foreign fabrics since the peace, the number which still maintain themselves, in spite of foreign competition, is a proof of the skill with which they were conducted.

The composition of the judiciary has a direct connection with the maintenance of liberty, and the security of private rights; and in the United States, where a jealousy of power is a constantly operating principle, we find, as might be expected, the provisions against the abuse of judicial power more numerous and strict than in Europe. The judiciary system is by no means uniform in all the states. In Pennsylvania, Delaware, New York, Massachusetts, Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, and Louisiana, the judges are appointed either by the executive solely, by the council of appointment, by the governor and council, or by the governor and senate; in the other states by the legislature. In Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Vermont, the judges are chosen annually; in New Jersey, the superior

judges for seven, the inferior for five years; in Georgia, for three; in Ohio, for seven years; and in all the other states during good behaviour. The federal judges also hold their offices without limitation as to time. In all the states judges are removeable by impeachment. In Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, they are also removeable for misconduct not requiring impeachment, on the address of a majority, or of two-thirds of the legislature.

The population of no country in the world ever enjoyed the necessaries and comforts of life in such abundance as that of the United States. The average price of labour was estimated by Mr Blodget, in 1807, at 75 cents per day. In 1815 we find it estimated by Mr Niles, who has paid much attention to the subject, at 80 cents per day; wheat at 1 dollar, 50 cents, per bushel; beef, mutton, and veal, at 6 cents per pound; and, at these prices, it has been computed that a labourer can earn as much in one day as will furnish bread and meat to himself, his wife, and four children, for three days nearly. The average wages of labour in England, in 1811, were stated, by Mr Young, at 2s. 5d. and in 1817 probably did not exceed 1s. 10d. It is observed by travellers, and the observation consists with facts known regarding the lower animals, that this abundance of substantial and nourishing diet has had a visible effect on the human frame. In the mountainous districts, and the western country generally, where the climate is good, and rural occupations prevail, the great strength and athletic size of the men

have struck foreigners with surprise. Where the means of subsistence are so easily procured, no person able to work need be in want. But there must be some in all countries, who, from age, bodily or mental infirmities, are unable to support themselves. In the middle states, on the Atlantic coast, the paupers have been estimated at 1 to 230 inhabitants; in the interior at 1 to 350; and of these a large proportion are foreigners and worn out negroes. In England, in 1817, about one-fifth of the whole population received assistance from the parish. The average expence of maintaining paupers in America is estimated at forty-five dollars per annum for each individual. A beggar is scarcely to be seen in any part of the country. But, to have a just idea of the advantages which industry enjoys in the United States, we must take into account, that while labour yields larger returns than in any other country, a much smaller proportion of the produce is taken away in the shape of taxes. The average revenue, from all sources, for ten years preceding the late war, was about 12,500,000 dollars, and this divided among 7,200,000 persons, (including blacks, for whom their masters pay,) gives 1 dollar for each person. Even during the war, the sums raised by taxation did not exceed this amount; but large debts were contracted. Passing over the years 1815 and 1816, in which the produce of the customs was unusually great, the permanent revenue during peace, till the debt is paid off, from all sources, exclusive of the sale of public lands, it is supposed, will be double of the last-mentioned sum, or twenty-five millions of