the trabeatae.

The praetextatae, which were the higher class of the two, were named from the praetexta, the purplebordered toga of the magistracy, for praetexo, like the Greek TeрITорpúpo means to 'border with purple.' The trabeata, as we learn from the little book entitled Illustrious Grammarians, was invented by Caius Melissus, who was librarian in the portico of Octavia under Augustus. The characters in the trabeata were the private senators, who` wore the toga. Another style of Latin comedy presented the humble concerns of the populace, and the actors wore the simple tunic. These plays, however, were not called tunicatae, but tabernariae, after the shops or booths in which the scenes were laid. Still another species of comedy, one altogether given up to pointed jesting, was the atellana, so-called from Atella, an Oscan town. These plays first appeared in the town theatres, but they obtained such favor that they were transferred to the city. Their acrid language had no further object than to raise a laugh. It was from such a play that, in his Life of Tiberius, Suetonius cites that verse which censures the coarse, dirty fellow for his obscenity: The old buck lusts after the goats.' Perhaps there is a pun in these words, for women may be called goats (caprae) because Tiberius chose the isle of Capri as his retreat. You must know that the Romans thought that it was no disgrace for them to take up the customs of their neighbors, in order to relieve their minds from the weighty conduct of public affairs. Indeed, though the performances were obscene in every respect, in character, action, and language, they enjoyed having freeborn citizens engage in presenting satirical thrusts in jests which were couched in uncouth verses. Because this style of poem lacked the full proportions of the atellana, and yet was congenial to it, in time it was inserted as a part, and gave rise to the exodia. The fact that the performers of the atellanae were citizens, relieved them from being enrolled among the actors or removed from their tribes, and retained them the right of applying for military service. One kind

of comedy was known as the Italian, but whether this was the atellana or some other variety is not known, nor indeed is it a matter of much moment. In the Ninth Book of the Banquet of the Learned a certain Tarentine poet, Sciras, is mentioned as the author of the Italian Comedy. Donatus adds another kind of comedy called the rhyntonicae, and he says that these plays were so called after Rhinton, the actor, but I do not see how an actor is able to change or originate a species of drama. In his Third Book, Athenaeus speaks of Rhinton as a poet and the author of a play, Amphitryon, and not as an actor at all. Donatus agrees with us in distinguishing the togatae from the tabernariae, though others, whom I think are undoubtedly mistaken, do not.

Each kind of comedy has its own types of character, though it is said that Pacuvius did not observe the distinctions, and presented the plot of a praetexta under the title of a palliata; at least this is so if he wrote the Orestes and the Agamemnon. As a matter of fact, novelty pleases us in things dramatic, even when a play is distorted to secure it. Thus in his playful way Plautus calls his Jupiter in Disguise a tragicomedy, for he attempts to combine the dignity of distinguished characters with the lowliness of comedy.

We may make another classification of comedies according to subject-matter. Some plays are wholly taken up with love affairs, as the Andria; some with calumny, as The Clouds; and some, with the civic conditions and customs of Rome, as The Treasure, The Captives, and The Concealed Treasure. In other plays an absorbing dénouement is the end sought, as in The Apparition, and Arcturus. Still others hinge upon deception, as The Braggart Captain and The Cheat. By another classification we recognize plays as full of commotion and bustle, so-called noisy plays (motoriae); such a play is The Brothers. Other plays are more composed and free from this running to and fro—the so-called quiet plays (statariae). Instance The Mother-inLaw and the Asinaria. Other plays are jovial and convivial, as The Twin Sisters. Now let us take up the parts of tragedy.

I. 8.

KINDS OF TRAGEDY

There are two kinds of tragedy, named locally Greek and Latin. The latter is also called praetextata, after the aristocratic robe of that name; an example is Seneca's Nero. Tragedies also differ in the nature of their subject-matter. For example, Callias, an Athenian who was born before Straton, produced a tragedy which he named Grammar, because he used mere letters for both its vocalization and its subject-matter, and the chorus was nothing else than a dancing to names and sounds and measures and rhythms of the letters of the alphabet. If any one cares to know more about this play, let him consult Athenaeus, for it has little to do with our present subject, and has small interest for Latin scholars. However, it was so admired by those of former times that, as records show, some verses in the Medea of Euripides and in the Oedipus of Sophocles were composed in imitation of it.

Another species of tragedy contains satyrs mingled with heroes in such a way that things grave and merry are combined. The Polyphemus of Euripides is an example. Mendemus the philosopher states that Sophocles and Achaeus wrote the first plays of this kind.

1

Now there were four festivals in which tragedies were wont to be acted, hence the term τετραλογία σατυρική. In three, namely the Dionysia, Lenaea, and Panathenaea, subjects of a grave character were acted; in the fourth, or Chytra, satiric subjects.

1A group of four dramas, one being satyric.

III. 5.

PLACE

The description of a place is either simple or with superficies. This last term of course is not to be taken in its mathematical sense of length and breadth, but in the legal sense of a wall, a grove, an altar, or a goal. Then sometimes we show what use it serves, and mention its advantages or disadvantages. A simple description is the following: 'The harbour is sheltered from the approach of winds, unmoved in its broad bay.' A more elaborate simple description from the same book reads: "The harbour by the force of the eastern wave is scooped into the shape of a bow.' In the first book we find a more elegant description: 'Within a long recess there is a spot; an island forms a harbour, etc.' A description with superficies would be the line, ‘In the midst of the city grew a holy grove.' In the following we have the description of the nature of a place and of its use: 'In the distance out at sea is a rock facing the foaming beach; at times it is submerged and buffeted by the swelling waves, when the stormy north-westers hide the stars; in calm weather it is quiet, and rises above the still sea with level surface; a station where the cormorants most delight to bask.' Sometimes the name is added: ‘In sight lies Tenedos, an island well known by fame, rich and powerful,' and then follow its vicissitudes: 'So long as the realm of Priam lasted, now a mere bay, and an unsafe anchorage for ships.' In like manner is the description of Italy in the First Book, and it tells of the change in name. And there is a similar description of Thrace in Book Three, though the author does not say in so many words, 'It is called Thrace,' but rather, 'The Thracians till it.' Use is again illustrated in the following from the Second Book:

etc.

'There was a threshold, and a concealed door, and a clear communication with the several parts of Priam's palace,' Note also the place in the Eleventh Book where Turnus leads his forces: 'There is a valley with a winding gorge, formed for fraud, and the stratagems of war; dark banks close it in on either side with steep descending woods; hither leads a narrow path, and a strait pass, and a scanty approach bears the traveller on. Above this, on the cliffs and on the highest peak of the hill, there lies table-land little known, and a safe place of retreat, whether from the right or left you mean to rush to the fight, or to take your stand on the ridge, and roll down huge masses of rock.' In like manner you might study the descriptions of Mount Aetna, of the encampments, of Carthage, and the like, which would serve you as models in imitating the work of that divine author. So you might use the following passage: "There is a place in the heart of Italy beneath high mountains, well known, and told of by rumour in many a land, the valley of Amsanctus; the dark side of a wood hems it in on either hand with thick foliage, and in the center a roaring torrent resounds o'er the rocks with whirling eddies. Here a dreadful cavern is shown as the vent of cruel Dis, and a mighty gulf, through which bursts Acheron, opening its jaws fraught with pestilence.'