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CONTENTS.

Evening Meeting at the College Rooms: Mr. Hughes's
Paper on "The Study of Geography".

Cambridge Local Examinations: Class Lists......
University Intelligence

Answers to Correspondents

New Scholarships at Cambridge.

Page

267

273

276

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Dulwich College ..................................... 27.8
Reviews, Notices, &c. .................................. 279

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Mathematical Questions and Solutions
College of Preceptors:-Meeting of Council, &c.

The Educational Times.

COLLEGE OF PRECEPTORS.

EVENING MEETING,

FEB. 18TH, 1863.

281

MR. LONG having been voted into the Chair, Mr. Hughes read the following Paper on

THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY, Illustrated by the Maps and Planispheres of the Chevalier Villa.

ciently and badly taught in too many of our ment! A description of the earth :-why, the schools. I form this opinion from the ex- subject, instead of repelling by its so-called perience acquired during many years devoted "dryness," is liable rather to the charge of to geographical tuition, in connexion with overwhelming us with what the French call schools of the most various descriptions, and the "embarras des richesses." It is a bandesigned to meet the wants of widely different quet of the most attractive, the most varied classes of society; and I will not hesitate, even kind, and in regard to which the real diffibefore my present auditors, (who will, I feel culty is one of selection alone; so much must assured, acquit me of the faintest intention of of necessity be rejected, from the vast divergiving offence), to say that my impression on sity of topics which are spread before the this point is fortified, rather than the con-mental vision. A real description of the trary, by experience gained in the performance, earth" implies, not merely a vivid picturing of 284 during several recent years, of the duties of the various aspects and phenomena of land and an Examiner in connexion with the College seas, with their almost infinite diversities of of Preceptors. Those duties have, no doubt, mountains and valleys, deserts and watered brought before me evidence of the existence of basins, caverns or rocky wilderness, oases of exceptions, and those of a character eminently verdure in the midst of an arid waste, or coral satisfactory, to the condition which I have islands of dazzling whiteness built up to the asserted to be of general prevalence; but, as a surface of a tropical ocean-not merely this, whole, they have confirmed the impression but an account of the phenomena of the earth, itself. the sea, and the air; of earthquakes, volcanic In making the remark above ventured on, in eruptions, trade-winds, monsoons, oceanic curreference to the imperfections of the geography rents, icebergs; of the strange plants and yet taught in our schools, let me hasten to add, stranger animals that are native to distant parts that, while hoping to enlist your sympathies in of the globe; yet more, of the different nations behalf of a few suggestions which may point to of mankind by whom the earth is peopled; of some improvements in this respect, I lay no their customs, modes of life, their towns, cities, claim to the discovery of any "royal road" to and kindred topics. Is such information dry? geographical knowledge. I profess to no faith Is it likely to repel either the youthful learner, WHEN I undertook, several weeks since, to in so-called "royal roads," either to geography or the student more advanced in years? Ought submit to the members of the College of Pre- or to any other branch of knowledge; and I it not rather to be looked on as one of the most ceptors some remarks upon methods of Geo- know of nothing that can enable the student-attractive portions of his course of study? of whatever age, or of either sex-to dispense graphical instruction, I was conscious of asThe geography taught in schools too often suming a position of more than ordinary with the diligent exercise of memory, and with ends with the acquirement of the mere elements difficulty. It was a task undertaken in com- thoughtful and earnest application of his or of the subject; and even of those in a fragmenpliance with the request of a learned and her mental powers, subject only to such con-tary and imperfect manner. Because a boy has accomplished cultivator of geographical and as-ditions as the judicious teacher (alike guide committed to memory so many names of countronomical science belonging to a foreign nation, and instructor of the young) knows best how to tries, towns, counties, mountains, rivers, &c., desirous of introducing to the notice of English impose. and perhaps knows, further, upon what poreducationists various charts and diagrams I insist, in the first place, upon the imperfect tion of his map to recognize these names, he is constructed by himself, but whose ignorance in that lies really the root of the evil com- has acquired no more than the means of using conception of Geography, because I believe that supposed to know geography. In reality, he of the English language rendered it necessary that, in the effort to do so, he should avail plained of. People too often mistake the mere the tools which the student of geography—in himself of the services of a friend. Not only frame-work of geography for the finished sub-its real and full meaning-requires in order was the Chevalier Villa precluded, by his im-ject-the skeleton for the living substance to pursue his labours. To know the use of perfect knowledge of our tongue, from giving the tools with which the geographer requires to figures-to have by heart the multiplicaon his own part such explanations of his works work, for that which forms the object of his tion table-this is not knowledge of arithis they may seem to stand in need of (and labours. Mere names are not geography; yet metic; though it is undoubtedly a knowledge such as their author may naturally be regarded names alone are not seldom made the sole aim which the student of arithmetic must posis best capable of supplying), but he was not purpose to which the learner's attention is sess. To know the signs, even the postuven able to be present in person at their at- directed by his instructor. Hence follows the lates, the axioms, that belong to mathematiempted illustration by the voice or pen of reproach so often, and so unjustly, charged cal science, does not in itself constitute any upon geography, that it is an uninviting, an one a mathematician, any more than the uninteresting subject-what people call "dry." ability to handle the compasses and the paThe difficulty thus adverted to has, as reards myself, been greatly lightened-indeed, am deeply convinced that this idea of geo- rallel ruler would in itself qualify any one for nore than half removed by the able exposition graphy is altogether erroneous; that it is based passing an examination in geometry; though hich a much more competent judge of the upon an imperfect, indeed a false, conception such knowledge of the elements of his subject, ils and appliances of astronomical science has of what geography is. Those who stigmatize such facility in the use of its implements, is ven us of those portions of Chevalier Villa's geography as a "dry" study, may be safely indispensable to the cultivation of the exact sciesigns which bear immediate reference to placed in the list of persons who are ignorant ences. But in the case of these and most other Astronomy. I refer, of course, to the learned of what geography means. subjects, the fundamental portion of the work is course of Mr. Herschel, to which we had the Let us inquire briefly what the word Geo- taken for what it is worth, and for no more than leasure of listening upon a recent occasion,-graphy really does imply. It is a description that, and it is sought to follow out the topic of ne which will be fresh in the recollection of of the earth, you at once answer. Well and study to its higher aims and objects. In the y hearers. This being the case, I feel at good; I am content to accept the definition. case of geography, on the other hand, it too berty to regard the subject in a more general But is a description of the earth what teachers often occurs that the educator stops short when ght, and with reference to a wider range of of geography realize-or, in the majority of the career of his pupil should in reality be ision. And hence, I propose to submit to cases, even make the attempt at realizing looked upon as having little more than comou, not merely some remarks upon the to the minds of their pupils? Is know- menced. The elementary truths of geography, rvices which the designs of my Italian friend ledge of names, learnt too often by rote, and the names with which geography deals, are in at rendering to the science of Geography, devoid of association with all that makes them mistaken for geography itselt ;-the subject is ut also a few general considerations upon the really worthy of being remembered-is this "a stripped of its vitality, its warmth of colouring, abject of Geography, its aims and scope, its description of the earth"? Add even to this of all that appeals to the imagination, to the ace in the entire scheme of education, and knowledge the ability to recognize the names feeling, of all that might exercise the higher he way in which it may be most efficiently upon the map, to point with facility to their powers of the intellect, and of most of what ught in our schools. places-does even this meagre addition con- (by association of ideas) would tend to fortify I must begin with the remark, that Geostitute "a description of the earth"? Yet the memory itself and aid the full development raphy is very imperfectly understood in our how often does the accomplishment of this form of its powers. Mere names of places, as I untry, and that (in great measure, I believe, the ultimate aim of the geography taught in have said, are not geography, to know by s a consequence of this imperfect conception our schools! In how many instances does even heart a whole gazetteer-full of them would not, t its object and meaning) it is both insuffi- this limited ideal fall short of actual attain-in itself, constitute any one a geographer. Geo

thers.

and

I

graphy has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the great laws of nature, and to mark their influences upon man. This is "a description of the world"-that is, "geography." In a word, Geography is a science-a thing, not of mere names, but of argument and reason, of cause and effect; and its student, to do his work properly, requires to study it as he would study any other science. The mere nomenclature of the subject-though I do not seek to undervalue the necessity of that either-is by itself worth very little. No wonder that the world at large should think the subject a dry one; that learners are too often disposed to turn from it in weariness, if not in disgust.

portions of the figure with the outer parts—is thereby caused, though the meridional distances are correctly preserved. Again, on the outer margin of his figures, (still by aid of the prolonged meridians), the meridional places of the stars in the one case, of the countries of the earth in the other, are shown; and the phenomena connected with the passage of the heavenly bodies over the meridians of different places, the differences of time, &c., are thereby illustrated. But the distortion in point of shape and comparative magnitude in these marginal representations becomes, of course, extreme.

of Mr. Herschel, made on the occasion of your last Meeting. Yet I may observe, that they illustrate, in more than a common degree, the connexion between Geography and the mathematical sciences-a connection which I could earnestly wish to see more regarded in our schools. I say this with especial reference to the subject of Map Projections-a matter for which the limited measure of attention devoted to geography leaves in general but little time; too often, indeed, no time whatever. We make constant use of maps, and, as is often the case, our very familiarity with their appearance leads us to neglect inquiry into their Mr. Herschel, looking with the meaning, and into explanations of their diver- eye of an astronomer, remarked on the difsities of merit as representations of the earth. culty of recognising the constellations, in the Yet projections are well worthy of study, on the case of the figure to which the earth is cen part (at any rate) of more advanced pupils; tral, and naturally preferred the other figure, and the subject is one upon which a good in which the heavenly sphere forms a cenI dwell on this low appreciation of Geography deal might be said. It is only by the com- tral portion, while the lands and seas of -this misapprehension of what geography parison of Maps constructed upon different the globe are delineated on the outer margin. really is-because I believe it to be productive projections (and therefore exhibiting, so to But the teacher of geography will look with of very serious evils, educational and social. speak, different aspects and different propor- alarm upon the extravagant distortion of the People will not give to the subject sufficient tions of the objects delineated), that a true con- shape and size of countries which the latter time for it to be properly studied, because they ception of the shape and measure of lands and involves, and will naturally hesitate to make do not think it worth the bestowal of so much seas can be realized. For a Map is the repre- use of that which is manifestly so untruthregard. The routine of schools does not, sentation upon a plane surface, of what is in ful a representation of the earth's external speaking generally, allow sufficient time for reality a rounded surface, a sphere; and features, whatever may be its advantages geography to be learnt that is, not for geo- some amount of disproportion is therefore in other respects. M. Villa, indeed, observes, graphy in its real and full meaning. Geo- inherent in every map, essential to its very in answer to such objections, that all our graphical names may perhaps be learnt; in nature. Take the outside half of an orange-ideas on such a subject, derived from maps, too many cases, I fear, only to be speedily for- its peel, and spread it out flat upon a table: are conventional-that all maps of necessity gotten; but the science of geography is seldom the round and the flat surface cannot be made supply representations more or less distorted. attained to. Schoolmasters and schoolmis- to coincide with each other unless by dis- And we must allow that there is truth in the tresses are not to blame for this: the fault is ruption of the former-the orange-peel will remark. Take Mercator's projection, for exthat of the public mind. The thing is not become torn. Similarly, the flat surface of the ample, in which, owing to the mathematical esteemed worthy of the same kind of serious map of a half of the globe, a hemisphere, law of its projection, the objects represented attention that is given by the learner to his- can only represent the corresponding spherical become continuously increased in size with tory, to ethics, to language, to the mathemati- surface by distortion (in some direction or advance from the equator towards the poles, cal sciences; though geography is in truth other) of its parts. It is not, and cannot be, and in which (owing to the fact that the me closely and essentially related (we may even strictly speaking, a true representation of the ridians, instead of continually approximating, say, indissolubly allied) to all of these. Edu- globe, but of necessity fails to give the lands as they do on the sphere, are throughout cated people too often think and speak of geo- and seas in their real proportions and distances made equidistant and parallel), the countries graphy as merely an affair of childhood's at- from one another. The smaller the extent of in high latitudes become most dispropor tainment a thing that belongs as a matter of surface which the map embraces, the less will tionately enlarged. In the Map of the World course to the early days of boyhood's, girl be the amount of disproportion or distortion; on Mercator's projection, Greenland becomes hood's, experience; and that, thus acquired-or, i. e., the less the difference between the plane as large as South America; Europe is as I should rather say, supposititiously acquired surface and the spherical surface, for a small large as Africa, and India is of scarcely requires no further place in the curriculum of part of the surface of a sphere differs compara- larger proportions than the British Islands. study. Only thus can I account for the fact, tively little from the flat surface upon which it Yet Mercator's projection has its advantages; that candidates endowed with high mental is projected; indeed, if the map represents but and those very great ones, scarcely capable of powers, and of high attainments in other sub- a very small extent of surface, the plane and being overrated, so far as its own special uses jects of study, will not unfrequently fail to pass the sphere may be regarded, for all practical are concerned. But judicious teachers of ge an examination in geographical science; as purposes, as almost coincident. But the extent graphy will hardly make use of it in giving people well-informed on most subjects, even of surface is not the only thing to be re- lessons to the very young, and will in any cat well-up in some branches of erudite know-garded: the point of vision, or projection, avail themselves of it but sparingly; accons ledge, will display the most lamentable ignor- and the laws which regulate perspective re- panying even such usage by admonitory ance of the higher truths of geography. I have presentations, must also be carefully studied. caution, and by the corrective which the personally known instances of the former kind, The hemispheres projected on the plane of a hemispherical map of the world (or, better as probably many of my hearers may have done. meridian (our common World-maps), and those still, the artificial globe) supplies. In the case of such persons, low estimate of on the plane of the equator (in which the geography, misapprehension of its real mean- north and south poles occupy respectively ing, is at bottom the cause of fault. They have the central points,) give very different reprethought geography beneath them; the thing sentations of the earth's surface. Yet one is has seemed unworthy of the serious exercise of equally true as the other; and it is only by their powers of mind, undeserving of the same comparison of both that the student of geomental labour which they have given to other graphy can realize a correct conception of subjects; and hence the failure adverted to. what, after all, the artificial globe alone can The fault is one that belongs not merely to adequately show. Hence the superiority of our age, but to our country. The estimate of that instrument over all maps for conveying Geography that prevails here is widely different the rudimentary lessons of geography. from that which obtains in many continental countries; and the low place of geography in our course of mental training is the well-known object of surprise and remark to instructed foreigners.

1 may seem, however, to be neglecting the Chevalier Villa's diagrams, upon which I had undertaken to make some remarks; and in truth there is not very much that I can say respecting them, after the luminous exposition

It is not, however, merely in reference to Maps in which a hemisphere is delineated, that the question of projections becomes en which deserves to be well considered, if mas are to be put to their proper uses. Unless such a projection be adopted as gives a rect angular (or as nearly as possible rectangular) intersection of the parallels and meridians an unequal and erroneous representation the objects which the map embraces, acces panied by distortion of shape, and incorrect In the diagrams of Chevalier Villa (I refer to expression of comparative magnitudes, will the large circular planispheres), the whole sur- be given in the various portions of the map, face of the globe is brought within a single circle, becoming greater towards its borders. The by prolongation of the meridians-one of the inequalities of measure which are thus in poles forming, in either case, the central point volved, even in the case of maps that lay of the figure, and the produced-meridian reach-claim to high merit in most regards, are often ing to a distance equivalent to 80° in the di- of a very serious description; as the applica rection of the opposite pole. An enormous tion of the scale of miles to spaces which, disproportion in the respective magnitudes of though of very unequal measure upon the map, the objects delineated-comparing the central represent spaces which are of equal dimensions

upon the globe, will convincingly show. I give at most but a compromise with truth. But any rate, not so new, by any means, as is an instance of this, taken from the case of a much may be done by the judicious map-maker often supposed. Many persons speak of phyMap which has attained deserved popularity, to diminish the evils of disproportionate repre- sical geography as though it were something and which really possesses merits of no com-sentation, and to distribute the unavoidable distinct from other geography, to be kept mon order. The sketch to which I direct deviation from the true surface of the sphere apart from it, and to be approached by differyour notice exhibits the islands of New Zea- as equally as possible over its surface, in-ent paths: as though geography (commonly land, as they appear upon the map which Istead of allowing it to accumulate in particular so called) were one thing, physical geohave in view. I have purposely enlarged the parts. The true principle is, to obtain, when-graphy another. I believe this to be a very scale of representation, but have in all respects ever possible, rectangular intersections of the great error. Physical Geography is in truth truthfully preserved the exact proportions. meridians and parallels, and consequently equal an essential part and parcel of all geography, Does this really represent the shape of New dimensions in the case of diagonals measured underlies the whole subject of geography, which Zealand? Does it show the real dimen- across the spaces which those lines enclose; can in no wise be understood, not even studied sions and proportions of that country? The for it is only when such conditions are fulfilled to any advantageous purpose, without conmap placed beside it supplies an answer that the properties of the spherical surface are stant reference to it. I do not mean to deny o these inquiries; one, however, which your really imitated, and its conditions complied that it may be necessary, in the practical work own knowledge of the geographical aspect with. Hence the value of what is known as of the school-room, to divide the whole subject of our antipodean colony would have readily the conical projection, and of the various of geography into two or more parts; to allot supplied, even without such aid. The New modifications of it rendered necessary or ad- what is called physical geography, as a special Zealand of the former sketch is, as it were, visable by the particular conditions of any subject, to one class, and what we understand pulled out of its true shape, elongated in given case. by descriptive or political geography to anothe direction of N.E. and S.W., unduly con- I forbear, however, to fatigue you further ther class; to give one day an hour to the tracted in that of N. W. and S.E. The whole with details of this kind, which necessarily one branch, another day and hour to the delineation is a distorted one. Why is this? assume a technical character. But I thank other, and so forth. That is, of course, a Observe the intersections of the parallels and the ingenious author of the diagrams which matter which it is for the schoolmaster himmeridians, and the linear proportions of the have led to these remarks for the opportunity, self to arrange, in accordance with his own spaces enclosed between them, and you have they have afforded me of "ventilating" the particular conditions of study, and is a thing the explanation. Instead of crossing one an- subject of projections, and of showing how on which it would be absurd and presumptuous other at right angles (as they do on the sphere), essentially the value of maps is dependent upon to say anything dogmatically. But I mean the parallels and meridians are in this case them. The recognition by M. Villa of the this: that Physical Geography enters, or should made to intersect at very unequal angles, importance of the principle I have stated-enter, into all Geography, and that, unless it oblique on one side, acute on the other. The that the intersection of the meridians and does so, we cannot give vitality to our subject, spaces enclosed between two consecutive meri- parallels should, if possible, be rectangular-cannot awaken interest in it as a living power dians and parallels hence become rhomboids appears to have prompted his representation instead of a heap of dead matter. For what is of most irregular proportions, and their diago- of a quarter of the earth, Europe, in No. 4 of physical geography but natural geography— nals, instead of being equal to one another (as his figures, which, however, although it illus- the study of the world of nature? Nature, under all circumstances the correspondent trates usefully the various conditions (of time, which is every where beneath, above, and diagonals are upon the sphere) differ from one &c.) which result from differences of meri- around us. I say, that this study of the feaanother in the ratio of nearly a third. dional position on the part of an observer, is tures, phenomena, and conditions of the phyNow let us apply the scale of miles to such attended by serious errors of another kind, too sical or natural world is necessary to due apa map, and observe the results. Take the obvious for it to be necessary that I should preciation of all geography, whether that of North Island first; this really measures in more particularly direct your notice to them. towns and provinces, governments and tribes length, from its northern to its southern ex- I wish, however, that opportunity could be of men, not less than that treating professedly tremity, 520 English miles; on the map to given in our schools for study of Map Projec- of mountains and deserts, trade-winds or gulfwhich my remarks bear reference, its measure tions, and of the mathematical laws which they streams. is scarcely more than 490 miles, that is, 30 involve; and I believe that much good would Physical Geography, I say again, is not miles short of its real dimensions. The real result, in the case of more advanced students, really a new study. Its modern arrangement and extent of the South Island, between its extreme from familiarity with different projections as organization may be new, and in that sense it N.E. and S.W. points, is 535 miles; but the applied to maps of the same regions of the is undoubtedly the creation of the illustrious measure obtained by application of the scale earth, whether a hemisphere or otherwise. German philosopher, Humboldt, whose trais actually 623 miles, or nearly 100 miles in How far our ordinary World-maps are from vels at the close of the last and early part of excess of the truth! The distance between satisfying all the conditions that arise in con- the present century have formed the basis of Wellington and Dunedin (the capital of the nexion with this question, may be seen by any well-nigh all that has, since the employment Otago province,) which is really 390 miles, one who will be at the trouble of examining of his own pen, been written on the subject becomes 450 miles on this map. On the other the projection devised, a few years since, by But the study of nature, and of natural phehand, the direct measure of distance between Colonel Sir Henry James, of the Topographical nomena, in connection with geographical locaWellington and Auckland falls 18 miles short Office, which affords a representation of two- lity, is by no means new. The received theory of the truth. Throughout the map, distances thirds of the sphere within a single circle, and of the trade-winds, and of the great movements measured across the breadth of the island fall is capable of application to several useful of the atmosphere in general, is due to the proportionately short of their true proportions. purposes, and the still newer development of joint labours of Edmund Halley and John Surely such discrepancies as the above are the spherical surface proposed by Sir John Hadley, whose writings date from the earlier important considerations in geography. The Herschel, and explained in a recent volume of half of the last century. The phenomena known instance to which I have referred is by no the Royal Geographical Society's Journal. as land and sea breezes have never been so means an extreme or uncommon one. Of the I pass to a few considerations on the rela- well described as in the quaint language of maps of Asia in popular use, very few show the tionship between Geography and the physical Dampier, the old buccaneering captain of north-eastern extremity of Asia, Kamschatka sciences. Physical geography has been of late James II. and William III.'s days. Reinhold and adjacent lands, in their true shape. Com-years a popular subject; and its introduction, Foster, the companion of Cook in his second pare the Kamschatka of the ordinary maps within a recent period, into many of our voyage, studied with accuracy the currents with that of the artificial globe, and see for schools (I believe, indeed, with more or less of and other phenomena of the sea, as well as the yourselves whether my objection is not a limitation as to the extent of its treatment, peculiarities in the form and distribution of correct one. Is the western extremity of the into most of our better-class schools), may be the land; as Joseph Banks had observed with North American continent correctly shown, accepted as warrant for my belief that little the eye of science the strange botanical e. its true shape given, on the ordinary maps need be said here of its value, of its import-productions of distant lands during our of North America? Compare them with the ance in an educational point of view. This great navigator's first voyage of discovery. globe, or compare different maps with one an- is admitted, at least on the part of all who Columbus had studied with elaborate care, and other, (for I do not say that all the maps in have been alive to the educational movements though of necessity with insufficient means, popular usage are liable to the error of pro- of the last ten or twenty years. But I believe, even generalized on physical geography, before jection imputed to many amongst them,) and nevertheless, that this recognition of physical his great undertaking; and his memorable see whether it be not so. I do not say that it geography is not seldom accompanied by an first voyage across the Atlantic revealed to his is possible wholly to avoid the source of error imperfect conception of its real place in the practised eye numberless truths belonging to upon which I am remarking; on the contrary, round of geographical study. Physical Geo- the geography of the natural world. At a still the best maps, as I have already observed, are graphy is not, in truth, a new subject-at earlier date, the Venetian, Marco Polo, in his

wanderings through the wide-spread deserts

Some races seem destined, not merely to avail great misconception of what geography means; of interior Asia, had marked with keen intel- themselves in fullest measure of natural advan- and, rather than sanction it, I do not hesitate ligence the features of the wilderness, and after-tages, but even to subdue nature-to mould it to say, that I would content myself with the wards fixed them for eve in his vivid descrip- to their own will. The Anglo-Saxon carries old-fashioned geography of younger days, and tion of its character. His description of the his energy to the most distant regions of the forego the later advances towards the culture regions lying around the great lake of Lop, globe, and flourishes by aid of his indomitable of its higher branches. I dislike smatterings with its attendant sketch of the terrors where resolution, his untiring industry, alike in the of knowledge, of any kind whatsoever. I must with superstition invests the trackless expanse farthest regions of the west and of the south. insist upon the elementary portions of my subof land-the Yet even he succumbs to the intense conditions ject-well and intelligently taught, and fixed calling shapes and beckoning shadows dire, of either a tropical or of an arctic climate. in the mind by frequent repetition-in the first And aery tongues that syllable men's names Allowing, however, all that is due to the in-place: the higher generalizations of physical On sands, and shores, and desert wildernesses;" fluence of race, there yet remains much in the science, in connexion with geography, after-this, I say, is still the best account that we social and moral condition of nations that wards. possess of those distant and seldom-visited re- physical geography helps to illustrate and to gions. Yet further back, and what is the chief explain. Would the old Scandinavian mythopart of the work of the elder Pliny, but a treatise logy have grown up anywhere but in connexion (and a most instructive one) upon physical with the peculiar features of the Norwegian geography? His "Natural History," as it is peninsula-its wild mountain-fjiells-its yet correctly entitled, treats of the stars, the hea-wilder fiord-indented and cave-hollowed coast vens, the wind, rain, hail, minerals, trees, -and the stormy waters of its adjoining sea? flowers, and plants, with an account of all I doubt it. Would the Dutchman have become living animals; besides embracing a descrip- what he is in any other land than that which he tion of all the important places (countries, pro- has himself rescued from the adjoining waters, vinces, towns, &c.) on the globe, so far as it eager to re-engulf the old domain of ocean? was known in his day. What is this but phy- Is not his legislation-in those enactments sical geography? And physical geography, that relate to the preservation of the dykes, too, occupying what I assert to be its true place and so forth-coloured by the conditions which in relation to the whole subject of geography. belong to the physical features of the NetherHerodotus, four centuries older in date, strove, lands? Will the inhabitants of the deserts of though with necessarily imperfect results, to Western Asia, of North Africa, ever be anyarrive at the laws of physical geography, when thing else than wanderers and tent-dwellers? he speculated on the causes of the annual Is not the colonist of Canada regulated in his rise of the Nile, the effects of the Etesian winds, course of life by the conditions of the St and compared the growth of the Egyptian Lawrence valley-its pine-forests, still stretchdelta to the gain of land at the mouth of the ing back from the clearances effected by human river Achelous. industry into the untrodden region of the far west?-the settler in the Mississippi valley, by its wide-spreading prairies, which it is for his industry to bring under the plough ?-the gold-digger of Victoria, by the natural features and conditions of the land which has become his home?-the shepherd of interior Australia, by the pastoral capabilities of the Australian bush?

With regard to the bearing of M. Villa's diagrams upon the culture of this portion of this subject, I confess that I think Nos. 3 and 5 of his diagrams possess considerable merit. I like the way in which his figures show the influence of solar heat upon the opposite er tremities of the globe at the seasons of sum mer and winter solstice, as well as those that illustrate the theory of the winds, the distribution of rain, the comparative lengths of rivers, and other problems of physical geography. But I may venture the remark, that the ingenious author of these diagrams would appear to have been but imperfectly ac quainted with what has been done by other labourers in the same field of study. We, at least, cannot ignore the splendid aids to the culture of geographical science derived from the physical atlas of Mr. A. Keith Johnston, of the great merits of which it is no disparagement to say that it is in great measure drawn from German sources, though largely enriched by the contributions of men of science native to our own country.

I fear, however, lest you should find my observations tedious, somewhat discursive, and wanting in solidity. After all, you may say, the practical question remains-how geography (granting all that you have said in its favour) to be best taught in our schools! To the very young? To children of more advanced years? What hints can you give us upon this head? Not very many; nevertheless, a few observations may perhaps be profitably made.

I have said that the geography of nature underlies all other geography. Its study should form the basis of all geography. It has entered into and modified-still does modify, and, in no unimportant measure, influence and regulate the social condition of mankind, the pursuits of nations, their industry, commerce, dress, amusements, customsin less, but still appreciable, measure, even Enough, however, of these instances. 1 their religious faith. Some of the instances know that physical geography is taught in of this, in reference to past ages of the world, many of our schools. I wish to see it taught are familiar enough, even trite. The maritime in all of them. But I must make one obserinstincts of the ancient Phoenician, the wander- vation, in reference to an evil tendency which With regard to the very young-i.e., to ing and tent-dwelling habits of the Bedouin I have sometimes remarked. It must not be children ranging between six and nine or te Arab, the colonizings on the part of the supposed that study of the great facts and years, I believe that a combination of oral ininhabitants of the coasts and adjacent islands laws of the natural world warrants our neglect struction, with the use of a rudimentary textof Greece-these have been over and over again of the humbler and less attractive elements of book (the fewer names contained in it the referred to. If modern illustrations of like our subject. It is a great error to imagine better), and aided by frequent and familiar character are less familiar, it is because few that a smattering of knowledge concerning reference to maps-or, better still, sketches people take the trouble to inquire into the sub-trade-winds, monsoons, or gulf-streams, can be made by the teacher on the slate or the black ject, and work it out to its results. I am far accepted in lieu of knowledge of a more cle- board-in illustration of the lesson-will from asserting, let me observe, that the condi- mentary kind. It must be supplementary to complish much towards stripping geography tions of physical geography alone serve to ex- this latter knowledge-additive to it, and can of its supposed "dryness" in the case of the plain the progress of nations, or to account for be accepted in no other way. As an Examiner, juvenile learner. Nay, more, I believe that the various development of institutions, pur-and also as a Teacher, I have sometimes found lessons in geography may be thereby made suits, habits, and so forth. I do not even a tendency on the part of students of physical highly interesting and attractive to the Int assert that they have been the chief cause of geography to disregard the less ambitious learners. But very much will depend upon the such varieties of social phenomena. I only details of the subject-the knowledge of place, tact and appreciative sympathy displayed by maintain that they are in partial measure a and the familiar practice of finding out note- the teacher-not more, however, in the case cause; that they have in all ages of the world worthy localities upon the map-as something geography than in any other branch of study. been, and still continue to be, a cause, and one beneath the supposed dignity of geographical I would certainly not begin to teach geography which should not be disregarded by the accu- science; as mere drudgery from which the to young children by putting into their hands rate student of mankind. Race has been, I aspirant to the knowledge of great natural books consisting of little more than lists of believe, still more influential in the production laws, as those involved in the phenomena of names-even yet the staple of too many of our of the social varieties to which I advert. Let winds, currents, earthquakes, and the like, elementary School Geographies. The doing s us take a single example. New Zealand has might be excused. I have found learners, is alone enough to disgust them with the subpossessed for countless ages its snow-clad many of them, who answer-imperfectly, and ject for the rest of their lives. And I hold it mountains and their included valleys, its gla- in a manner that showed them to possess, after of the highest importance to begin by the ciers, rivers, waterfalls, and deeply-embosomed all, but a smattering of knowledge on this endeavour to make them comprehend the geelakes-a truly Alpine land: but the Maori subject-a question about the Gult-stream or graphy of what is immediately about them, race, though far from deficient in natural the Monsoons, but who shrank from such plain near them: to know the geographical relatos capacity, intellectual and moral, remained a and old-fashioned questions as the places of of their own neighbourhood-street, vill people of rude and savage habits, with hardly important towns, capitals of countries, seats of or town-afterwards of their own county, and more than the germs of civilization, and ad-commerce, notable capes, mountains, or rivers. then in succession a few great truths respe dicted to the practice of cannibalism. I hold this to involve a very serious evil, a very ing the geography of Britain-all this before