CHAPTER IX. OF APPROPRIATION. 1. War and trade the characteristics of the early periods of society. Necessity for the services of the warrior and the trader diminishes with the growth of wealth and population. 2. Close connection between war and trade visible in every page of history. Their centralizing tendencies. Their power diminishes with the growth of commerce. 23. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Attica. 24. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Sparta. 5. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Carthage. ? 6. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Rome. 27. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. 28. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Holland. 9. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Portugal. 10. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of Spain. ? 11. Social phenomena exhibited in the history of France. 12. The higher the organization of society, the greater is its vigor, and the better its prospect of life. The more numerous the differences, the higher is the organization, and the greater the commerce. Increase in the proportions of soldiers and traders tends towards centralization, and moral, physical, and political death. 13. Modern political economists teach the reverse of this. Errors resulting from using the same words, to express ideas that are wholly different. § 1. WAR and TRADE being, as has been shown, the characteristics of the early periods of society, their close connection is shown at almost every step of societary life that has thus far been recorded. History, indeed, may with perfect truth be said to be little else than a record of the efforts of the few to tax the many, and of the many to escape taxation. The Ishmaelites, whose hand was against every man, while every man's hand was against them, were extensive dealers in slaves and other merchandise. The Phoenicians, freebooters at one time, traders at another, were always ready for any measures tending towards enabling them to maintain the monopolies of trade they had established. Homer presents Menelaus boasting of the plunder he had acquired by means of piracy, and the wise Ulysses as feeling his honor untouched by the inquiry whether he came as trader or as pirate. The Norwegian sea-kings are seen alternately engaged in "gathering property," as robbery was then naively termed, or in trading from one kingdom to another, both pursuits being held in equally high esteem. The same connection is seen in the histories of Hawkins, Drake, and Cavendish; in those of the African slave trade, and the West Indian Buccaneers; in the French and English wars on this continent, in the West Indies, and in India; in the closing of the Scheldt; in the wars of Spain and England; in the paper blockades of the wars of the French Revolution; in the occupation of Gibraltar as a smuggling depot; in the late wars in India, especially the last with Burmah, begun about a trader's claim of a few hundred pounds; in the opium war in China; in the manner in which Indian wars are gotten up in this country; in our own recent warlike demonstration against Japan, made with a view to compel that country to accept the blessings that were to follow in the wake of trade, and which now exhibit themselves in the forms of civil and foreign wars; in the proceedings of France in the Sandwich and Marquesas Islands; and last, though not least, in the application of British capital and British skill to the fitting out of pirate ships, to be manned by British seamen, and employed in driving from the ocean the stars and stripes under which the people of these United States have thus far so successfully competed with those of Britain for the carrying trade of the world at large. War and trade tend towards centralization. The support of soldiers and sailors produces a necessity for taxation, the proceeds of which must seek a central point before they can be distributed, and the distribution collects together hosts of men anxious to secure their share of plunder, as was the case in Athens and in Rome, and as it now is in Paris, London, New York, and Washington. Under their reign, the city becomes from year to year a better place for trading in merchandise or in principles, while rapidly increasing centralization destroys the attraction of local centres. The greater the power of association, and the more perfect the development of the individual powers of each member of society, the more do warriors, politicians, and traders, tend to occupy their proper place, that of instruments to be used by society; and the greater the durability of the society, as well as its power to repel invasions of its rights. Whatever diminishes the power of association tends to make society the instruments of these men; centralization, slavery, and death always traveling hand in hand together. The policy of Athens, Rome, and other communities, having tended in this latter direction, a state of things was brought about which gave rise to the idea that societies, like trees and men, had their various stages of growth and decline, ending naturally in death. To determine how far this is so, we may now briefly examine the course of action of some of the leading communities of the world. § 3. The people of Attica, at an early period divided into small communities, became united under Theseus, with Athens for their capital. The Boeotians, in like manner, associated themselves with Thebes, and the little States of Phocis followed their example; while the tendency to general combination is seen in the institution of the Amphyctionic league and the Olympic and other games. For a long period the history of Athens is almost a blank, because of its peaceful progress. Peace brought with it such a steady growth, that long prior to the days of Solon mechanics and artisans constituted an affluent and intelligent body, while throughout the State labor and skill were given to developing the various treasures of the earth; and the habit of association thus produced developed that individuality to which Athens has since stood indebted for the prominent place she has occupied in the pages of history. Under the legislation of Solon, the whole body of citizens had the right of voting in the popular assemblies, but all were not equally eligible to office. All, however, were not equally taxed for the maintenance of government, the heaviest contributions having been required from the first class, eligible to the highest offices, and their amount diminishing downwards till they disappeared at the fourth, which was exempt from taxation as it was excluded from the magistracy; and here we find the most equal apportionment of rights and duties exhibited in the history of the world. Elsewhere, the few have taxed the many for their support, while monopolizing the offices; while here, the few who had a right to claim the offices paid the taxes. Towards the close of the century succeeding this organization, we find Attica divided into a hundred townships, each having its own local assembly and magistracy; a system more perfectly in accordance with the laws of the universe than any the world had seen before the settlement of the provinces now constituting these United States. With the Persian invasion there came, however, a total change. The country had been wasted and population had diminished; and henceforth we see the Athenians passing from the condition of a peaceful democracy in which every man was engaged at home in combining his efforts with those of his fellow-citizens, to that of a warlike aristocracy, engaged in preventing association abroad, and using their power so to do as a means of self-enrichment. Having accumulated fortunes by extortion, Themistocles and Cimon could secure the services of thousands of poor dependants. Poverty producing a thirst for plunder, it was easy to fill the army and man the ships which were employed in subjecting states and cities hitherto regarded as equals and allies. Athens having now become mistress of the seas, "upon her will," said Xenophon, "depended the exportation of the surplus produce of all nations;" and to enable her to exercise that will, we see her compelling the allies to compound for personal service by money payments, by help of which nearly the whole of the Athenian people were maintained in the public service. War having become her trade her armies are now largely increased, and for their maintenance and support she first seizes on the public treasury, then requires the allies to pay to her taxes on all the goods exported or imported. Next, declaring herself the court of final resort in all criminal, and nearly all civil, cases, her people become converted into judges, ready to sell their awards to the highest bidder, and States are now obliged to purchase protection by means of agents employed to distribute bribes among the citizens. The many become impoverished, while the few are thus enriched. Temples are erected, and theatres maintained at the public cost. The right thus to live by the labors of others being, however, regarded as a privilege to be limited to the few, and inquiry being made into the right of citizenship, no less than five thousand persons are rejected, and sold as slaves. With every increase of splendor we find an increase of indigence, and a necessity for exporting men to distant colonies, there to exercise over previous settlers the same power which the rich now exercise at home. The people, all fully occupied in the management of public affairs, are paid out of the public purse; and so great has become the general poverty that an obolus (about three cents) is regarded as compensation for a day's service in the courts. Tyranny and rapacity next give rise to the Peloponnesian war, at the close of which Attica passes under the dominion of the Thirty Tyrants. Taxation grows, industry declines, and man becomes (to use a modern phrase) superabundant. Licentiousness becoming universal, military command is sought as the only road to fortune. New oppressions producing the Social War, towns are everywhere plundered, and thus on and on may we trace the people of Attica exhausting themselves in the effort to impede the movement of others, until they become mere instruments in the hands of Macedonian monarchs. Thence we find them passing under the sway of Roman proconsuls, and Herodes Atticus becoming almost sole owner of a land which, in happier days, had given support and prosperity to hundreds of thousands of industrious and prosperous freemen. § 4. The institutions of Sparta having been based upon the idea of preventing voluntary association, she never passed beyond the cultivation of the poorer soils. Man was there regarded but as an instrument, forming a part of an imaginary being called The State, to whom all his feelings and affections must be sacrificed. The home had no existence, for not only were parents deprived of the society of their children, and of all control over their education, but they themselves might not even eat in private. Her people could neither buy nor sell, nor profit in any manner of the services of the precious metals. They might not study the sciences, and from music, as well as from all theatrical amusements, they were entirely debarred. The system thus preventing the development of individual faculties, wealth could not grow, nor could the people advance beyond the rudest pursuits, those looking to the appropriation of the property of others; and therefore it was, that while always engaged in war, they were ever ready to sell themselves to the highest bidder. Poor and rapacious, perfidious and tyrannical, Sparta exhibits in her history but a picture of growing inequality and constantly retarded motion, until her soil passes into the hands of a few proprietors; and she leaves, as her sole bequest to posterity, the record of her avarice and her crimes. § 5. The history of Carthage is little more than the record of wars made for the purpose of securing the monopoly of trade. Her colonies being allowed no communication with the world except through the ships and merchants of the mother country, the system under which they suffered was supported by their contributions. Monopolies filled the treasury, and the disposal of the revenue gave power to a trading aristocracy ever ready to subsidize barbarian armies. The city grew in splendor, but the day of trial showed that the foundation of the social edifice was weak and rotten, and Carthage then passed from existence, thus supplying further |