follow a certain programme, although in general not bound to study every matter contained in it. In the faculties they are more free to choose their subjects, although they must regulate the same according to the preparation for the licentiate or the "agrégation."

At the College of France the student is entirely free, and every year, with the approbation of all the professors, he makes his own choice of studies in the course. In 1894-95 M. Longnon, professor of historic geography of France, taught the description of the two Aquitaines and "Novempopulanie" at the decline of the Roman period. In my course on geography, history, and economic statistics I have treated of the economic development of the United States (agriculture and mines).1

In the special schools there are none but students; in the faculties there are both students and hearers. At the College of France, whose courses do not have any examination, there are simply hearers (that is, those who attend the lectures).

The value of a course of superior instruction depends entirely on the culture and the capacity of the teacher. Hence there is nothing to prescribe as to the manner of proceeding. To advance science, to extend the knowledge of it, and to create a taste for it, such is the end; to interest by instructing is what should be recommended; but it pertains to the teacher alone to find the means of success, and he must be left free in his action.

As in secondary instruction, it is important that the professor have a good supply of wall maps and blackboards.

If the professor has only hearers, it is by public lectures that he exercises his scientific influence, supplementing his lectures by special instructions for those who ask this help. If he has pupils, it is necessary not only to teach by lectures, but incite them to work themselves, and to direct their work, giving them now and then subjects to treat and showing them how to make researches, how to study a question, and how to explain it in oral and written terms.

PUBLICATIONS, LIBRARIES, AND GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES.

Scientific publications, journals, reviews, books, and geographical societies contribute to develop a taste for the study and popularize it; this is one way of instruction.

To say nothing of political journals, some of which often contain interesting information, I will mention among those periodicals specially consecrated to geography in France, Annales de Géographie, a recent quarterly publication; La Revue de Géographie, a monthly which has been in existence nineteen years; L'Annuaire du club alpin, the Bulletins of the society of geography, and the Society of commercial geography of Paris, also those of the provinces; the Bulletin of the Committee of French-Africa; Le Tour du Monde, Le Journal des Voyages, a very popular publication; Le Moniteur Officiel du Commerce, La Revue Maritime et Coloniale, La Revue Internationale de Géographie, La Topographie, etc.

Among the societies are La Société de géographie at Paris, the oldest of its kind; La Société de géographie commerciale de Paris, Le Club Alpin, La Société Africaine, La Société des Études Coloniales, La Société de Topographie, La Société indochinoise, La Société géographie de Marseille, La Société de géographie commerciale de Bordeaux, La Société de géographie de Lyon, La Société Normande de géographie de Rouen, La Société de géographie de l'est à Nancy, La Société de géographie de Lille, L'Union géographique du nord de la France à Douai, La

Course of 1893-94: (Opening lecture) The Chicago Exposition; American chartography; geology; relief of the soil and great physical divisions (3 lectures). Basin of the Mississippi: basin of the Atlantic; the Indians; foundation of colonies; territorial formation of the United States. The Constitution of the United States (2 lectures). The States; local government; justice; parties; party platforms (2 lectures). Slavery; black population; immigration to the United States (4 lectures). Education, primary instruction, pedagogic organization; pupils; secondary instruction (2 lectures). Results of pedagogic statistics, religions; religion and morals. Course of 1894-95; (1) General review of the preceding course and the social state of the United States; (2) soil and climate; (3) culture in former periods; (4) occupation of the country; (5) transfer of public lands; (6) homestead exemption; (7) rural property; (8) cultivation; (9) tools and implements; (10) mortgage debts; (11) farm laborer and his wages; (12) maize and wheat; (13) wheat and other cereals and potatoes; (14) tobacco, sugar, and cotton; (15) cotton and vegetables; (16) vegetables, fruits, and flowers; (17) fruits, forests: (18 and 19) forests continued; (20) beasts in general, the horse; (21) oxen; (22) sheep and pigs; (23) commerce in wheat; (24 and 25) commerce in meat; (26) exportation of agricultural products; (27) commerce of meat and cereals in all countries; (28) commerce of meat; (29) general movement of commerce of the products of the earth; (30) abundance of food, rents; (31) influence of money on the lowering of prices; (32) values of agricultural products and manufactures compared; (33) combustible minerals: (34) minerals and metals; (35) usual metals besides iron; (36) mineral iron; (37) iron casting and steel; (38) gold; (39) silver; (40) production of precious metals; (41) general view of the influence of the production of precious metals on prices and on circulation.

Société de géographie de Valenciennes, La Société de géographie languedocienne à Montpellier, La Société de géographie de Nantes, La Société bretonne de géographie, à Lorient, La Société de géographie du centre de la France, à Tours, La Société de Géographie de Rochefort, La Société de géographie_commerciale du Havre, La Société de géographie commerciale de St. Nazaire, La Société bourguignonne de géographie, La Société de géographie de l'Aube.

The committee of historical and scientific works in the ministry of public instruction, one of whose functions is to serve as a means of maintaining the union between Societies of Savants, comprises five sections, one of which is that of historical and descriptive geography.

Several of the ministries contribute by their publications to the development of the geographic sciences-the ministry of public instruction through the committee of historical and scientific works, the ministry of war through the geographic service of the army, which is charged with keeping up to date the military map of the French staff, which is on a scale of boo, and the whole cartographic work of the ministry; the ministry of marine through the depot of marine charts and plans; the ministry of the interior through the preparation of a map on a scale of 1000 of a meter; the ministry of public works through the publication of its map (scale goooon, unfinished), and a graphic album of statistics, etc. The ministry of foreign affairs has some very valuable cartographic archives. The ministry of the colonies has recently created a geographic service, the direction of which has been assigned to a fellow (agrégé) in history and geography. Independently of the cartographic riches possessed by general libraries, especially the national library, which has a very valuable department of geography, there are several libraries specially devoted to geography that, with more or less liberality, are open to the public: The Library of the Society of Geography, that of the Society of Commercial Geography, of the Depository of Marine Charts, of the Higher Military School, of the Superior Normal School, the library of the Sorbonne, etc.

EFFORTS TO PROMOTE GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY IN AUSTRALIA.

It is interesting to note in this connection efforts to promote geographical study in British colonies. The Royal Geographical Society of Australasia has been active in this respect. The Queensland branch of this society effected a relation with the Brisbane Technical College in 1894, by which a class in commercial geography was established at the Brisbane Technical College under the auspices of the society. The initiation and conduct of the movement was intrusted to Mr. J. P. Thomson, at the time the honorable secretary of the society, and subsequently elected to the presidency. Mr. Thomson has been indefatigable in the endeavor to promote interest in this subject. He has also greatly assisted by his researches, and published works to increase the actual knowledge of the geography of Australia. In common with other authorities cited in this chapter, he urges the special importance of teaching children the geography of their native land. In his presidential address1 delivered at the anniversary meeting of the Geographical Society in 1895, he said:

It is not to our credit as a people that while our school children are crammed with what after all is only a superficial and inadequate knowledge of all other parts of the world, little attention is given to our own country, to our industries, or to our natural and artificial resources. To the credit, be it said, of a publicspirited journal, the subject of our national industries has recently received special treatment, and it is hoped the Courier, to which I particularly refer, will devote equal time and attention to other phases of our partially, or wholly, undeveloped

resources.

The Physical Geography of Australia. Anniversary address of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, July 22, 1895, by the president, J. P. Johmson, F. R. S. G. S. F. S. Sc. (London).

CHAPTER XXXI.

CONSULAR REPORTS ON EDUCATIONAL TOPICS.

[This Bureau is indebted to the State Department for documents on educational topics sent by United States consuls in various countries. Some of these documents deserve publication in their entirety; others refer to educational measures in foreign countries as causes of conditions observed. Many of such references appear to be of importance; hence excerpts have been made and are here inserted.]

RECENT PROGRESS IN RUSSIA.'

Report of Mr. THOMAS SMITH, vice and acting consul at Moscow, Russia.

During the last two years the columns of our papers and journals have been enlivened with discussions as to the requirements of our education. Sometimes they speak of the deficiency of our national and elementary schools, and sometimes of the necessity of reforming the gymnasium and realistic schools, and finally the universities. In the commencement of 1897 much was written concerning the necessity of reforming the universities; during the autumn the question was raised regarding the remuneration and salaries of professors, then the question of technical schools and technical faculties. Everywhere and in everything is noticed a desire for progress, and a thirst for reform shows itself. The desire appears not only in Russian society, but, what is more, it has taken hold of Government spheres. In nearly all departments the work is going on. Wherever the Government concerns itself with the problem of the education of the Russian people—the education of the lower, middle, and higher classes-permanant and temporary commissions are at work. The problem of education has become a problem of reform.

But something unaccountable is putting on a drag in the matter of reform. They talk a great deal, but without arriving at any result. They begin to talk from a new point of view, and, as it were, of other things; and again, although the subject is always the same-i. e., the reform in education-nothing comes of it. The whole consists of only ideas and wise and good plans, but the matter remains immovable. There is a reason, it must appear, in every natural and general manifestation, though we do not see it; but the reason in this instance is a very ordinary one. In fact, we are told-and it is constantly repeated to us— that we have no money. We all wish for reforms; we acknowledge their necessity and importance. We require both national education and reforms of the middle schools, and augmentation of the budgets of the university, and the extension of technical education; but we have no money.

Here unwilling doubts arise. On the one hand financial estimates with a large surplus, the brilliant exhibition in Nijni Novgorod, the exchange of paper currency for gold and silver, and much more make one think that we are rich; on the other hand, it appears that we are poor, that almost nothing more can be undertaken for the spreading and perfection of education in Russia. Are we rich or poor?

1 Translation from the Russian newspaper, Novoe Vremia.

In deciding this question, society is at a loss; but, allowing that we are neither rich nor poor, but that the State, people, and society are possessed of fair means, what do we do? Out of the more than a billion budget, we spend 20,000,000 rubles ($10,280,000),1 2 per cent, on national education. Admitting that other departments in line with the ministry of national education expend on schools and education another 20,000,000 rubles (besides the budget of the ministry of national education), and that the State expends altogether nearly 4 per cent of its budget, is such a condition normal? We shall not compare these figures with the expenditures of other Governments; the comparison would be too unprofitable for Russia. Let us examine the matter as it is, in connection with the condition of our Fatherland and of Russian society. We require a low medium instruction and higher education in a much larger measure and proportion than actually exist. Everyone agrees with this contention; but let us only verify this condition from a general point of view. The State spends on the needs of education about 4 per cent of its budget; how much does society itself expend on it?

Let us take the middle class of our population, a class of people possessing means, but not rich. The income of this class amounts to from 1,000 to 5,000 rubles ($514 to $2,570) per annum. Of course the matter concerns the people with families, . . . where there are three or four children (the usual number in a middleclass family). The outlay on the education of the children fluctuates between 300 and 700 rubles ($154 and $359) per annum. It is beyond doubt that a Russian family spends on the education of its children (each one of us will find sufficient confirmation of this) from 10 to 20 per cent of its annual income. The State expends on education 4 per cent; a family 10 or 20 per cent of its budget. But up to the present, we have been speaking of the middle class of society. If we had in view the people and the lower classes, it would appear that with 4 per cent of their income, the peasant and artisan could not pay for the most elementary education of their children; consequently, the education of the people must be almost gratis. For this purpose, must be taken at least one-half of the 20,000,000 rubles ($10,280,000) budget of the ministry of national education. Certainly, we have rich people who spend on the education of their children less than 10 per cent, and even less than 4 per cent of their incomes; but in Russia, there are so few of them, they are but units in the millions of population. In statistics of the expenditure of society on the education of youths they can not be taken into consideration, being quite an exception.

The result is therefore perfectly clear. Russian society, striving toward education, expends five or seven times more than the State. Is such a state of things correct? To secure an indispensable equality between the needs of society and expenditure out of the State budget, the Government should, by an augmented outlay for education, equalize its contribution to that of the public. When the State shall begin to spend on education the same percentage of its budget as is expended by a Russian family-say, about 10 per cent, or 100,000,000 rubles ($51,400,000)—then, of course, we shall not have a deficiency in any kind of schools-in national or lower, or in middle and higher schools. Of course, it is impossible to attain such a condition at once; but if the Government annually and gradually increases the budget of the ministry of education by 5,000,000 rubles ($2,570,000), which can not be burdensome, considering the immensity of overestimated appointments, then in the course of four years the budget would be doubled, and we would almost have double the number of school establishments, and the existing ones would flourish perfectly.

Moscow, January 4, 1898.

1According to the valuation of the Director of the United States Mint, January 1, 1898, the paper ruble equals 51.4 cents in United States currency.