MEDICINE-Continued.

What qualifications as to citizenship, personal character, and liberal education are required from the applicant?

NEW YORK: Certificate of good moral character from not fewer than two physicians in good standing; also evidence that applicant has the general education required preliminary to receiving the degree of bachelor or doctor of medicine in this State (medical student certificate), or graduation from a registered college, or satisfactory completion of a full course in a registered academy or high school, or had a preliminary education considered and accepted by the regents of the University of the State of New York as equivalent to such high-school course. NORTH CAROLINA: Certificate of good moral character from someone known to the board. Education decided by character of papers handed in on examination.

NORTH DAKOTA

What qualifications are required in the way of a professional study of medicine, specifying, in addition to the branches of medicine and surgery, and practice thereof required, the duration of such study, and whether it must be supplemented by study with a physician?"

Evidence that applicant has studied medicine not less than four full years of at least nine months each, including satisfactory courses of at least six months cach, in four different calendar years in a medical school registered as maintaining at the time a satisfactory standard. The appli cant for license to practice medicine in New York State [not a graduate?] must pass examinations in anatomy, physiology, hygiene, chemistry, surgery, obstetries, pathology and diag. nosis, therapeutics, practice, and materia inedica. (See also p. 1234.)

No attention paid to diplomas. Satisfactory examination in all branches of medicine. No study with physician required. Examinations are comprehensive but are liberal; 80 per cent is necessary to pass, however.

OHIO: Good moral character from two registered physicians of the State.

All medical colleges of tho United States requir ing a minimum of three years of study of medi cine and two courses of lectures for graduation prior to 1886, and possessing proper facilities for teaching and a faculty embracing the chairs of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, materia medica, therapeutics, medicine, surgery, and obstetrics shall be recognized as in good standing, and diploinas issued by the same and properly verified shall entitle the holders thereof to register as graduates in medicine. For the ten years ending in February, 1896, all medical colleges exacting the foregoing requirements and possessing facilities and a faculty as specified above │ shall, by virtue of such facts, be recognized as in good standing to and including the year 1892, but that no medical college shall be recognized as in good standing which has not since 1892 possessed the foregoing facilities and faculty, and in addition has not exacted an entranco qualifica tion and attendance upon three regular courses of lectures as a condition of graduation. On and after July 1, 1899, no medical college will be recognized as in good standing which does not require the entrance qualification prescribed by the Association of American Medical Colleges as a pre- | requisite for matriculation, which does not possess an adequate equipment for teaching medicine, which has not clinical and hospital facilities based upon a minimum municipal population of 50,000, and which does not have an active faculty embracing the departments of anatomy, physiology, chemistry, materia medica and therapeutics, medicine, surgery, obstetrics, histology, pathology, bacteriology, ophtalmology and otology, gynecology, laryngology, hygiene, and State medicine, and which does not enjoin attendance upon 80 per cent of four regular courses of instruction of not less than twenty-six weeks cach, in four different years, and which does not exact an average grade of 75 per cent on an examination as a condition of graduation, providing that the rule rela tive to population as a basis for clinical and hospital facilities shall not apply to institutions under State control and which by virtue of such control receives gratuitously patients from all parts of the State in which such colleges are located. OKLAHOMA: Certificate of good moral character and that holder is not an habitual drunkard.

OREGON: Good moral character required

PENNSYLVANIA: Applicant must be 21 years of age, of good moral character, and have a com. petent common-school education.

RHODE ISLAND: Citizenship is a new question and has never occurred to us before but will now receive attention. Personal character has not been required. It is difficult to establish [true] character of applicant, but we do not issne certificate until applicant has been in prac tice for three months in this State and if he turn out an advertising, charlatanic person we refuse to grant certificate. A high-school or academic education is required of all colleges in "good standing."

None, if a graduate from a medical college in good
standing; if not a graduate, applicant must
have been a practicing physician for five years
and pass an examination before the beard on
the several branches of medicine.

No attention paid to college diplomas. All must
stand an examination before State medical
board on anatomy, physiology, etc.
Four years study of medicine, including three years
in some legally incorporated medical collego of
the United States, or a diploma or license con-
ferring the full right to practice all the branches
of medicine and surgery in some foreign coun-
try. Others must stand an examination before
board.

Examination on eleven branches of medicino
required. Applicant [for examination] must
have obtained diploma from a school having a
four-years' course in medicine during the year
of graduation. One year at a veterinary or
dental school will not pass for a year of study |
in medicine. School must have a course of
twenty-six weeks, teach all main and supple-
mentary branches. Study with physician not
required nor is it accepted as a part of the four
years. Diplomas of schools located in cities of
fewer than 50,000 people not accepted.

WEST VIRGINIA: Good moral character and Eng. Diplomas are not recognized. All must pass lish education.

Citizen of United States or one having declared intention to become a citizen. Must be of age, and good moral character.

Must have resided in Vermont six months, be of age, and of good moral character.

Must have resided in State six months, be of age, and a person of honest demeanor.

Must be a citizen of the United States, have resided in State one year, have a good moral character [and 21 years of age).

Graduates from the University of Texas are admitted without examination. Others are examined by a committee on Blackstone's Commentaries, Kent's Commentaries, Stephens on Pleading, Story's Equity Pleading, first volume of Greenleaf, Story on Notes, Story on Partnership, Story's Equity Jurisprudence, or books of like character. He is expected to have some knowledge of the constitution and statutes of Texas and the practice of her courts.

All applicants are strictly examined in open

court.

All are examined in open court by a committee
of the bar; but applicant must have studied
three years in the office of a practicing attorney,
though not more than two of these years may be
spent in attendance at a law school chartered
by any State of the United States.
It appears that all are subject to examination by
the supreme court of appeals on common law,
equity, commercial law and practice, and the
code of Virginia, but the diploma of a law school
duly incorporated by one of the United States
"is considered."

The supreme court by two of its judges satisfies
itself that the applicant has sufficient general
learning [but an attorney of the State must cer-
tify that applicant has studied law for two years
previous to his application and that he believes
him to be a person of sufficient legal knowledge
and ability to discharge the duties of an attor
ney and counselor at law, laws 1897].

Must be a citizen, one year a resident of the All applicants are now (1897) examined by the county, have a good moral character. law faculty of the University of West Virginia for the supreme court.

Must be a resident of the State and be of good Graduates of the law department of the Univer. moral character.

Must be a citizen, of age, of good moral character, and learned in the law, all of which must be passed upon by the standing committee on admission of each court. An examination is made into the private character and unprofessional literary attainments of appli

cant.

sity of Wisconsin are admitted on their diplo mas; others are examined by State board of examiners, if they have studied law at least two years prior to the examination.

(See preceding column.)

II. THE PREPARATION OF THE PRofessor.

Those who teach in schools of medicine and law may be divided into two classes. One class, experts in the thing, sell their knowledge and endeavor to impart their skill; another class, expert in imparting the knowledge of the thing and in placing the students in the way of acquiring skill, sell their own expertness in approaching the untutored mind and devote themselves to teaching and practical study. Possibly the latter class is not very large in America, nor in Great Britain, nor in Paris. But the universities of Edinburg and the faculty of medicine of Paris have long since lost their supremacy as centers of medical education, and the Inns of Court at London and the Sorbonne at Paris are not now regarded as the great central influence for the common law of England or the civil law of Rome. The legal lights of Bentham, Austin, Pollock, Anson, Holland, of Oxford or Cambridge, and of Holmes of Massachusetts have supplanted those of Coke, Blackstone, and the Yearbooks, and those of Savigny, Ihring, and Puchta, those of Pothier. Thus medicine and law are not now generally regarded as necessarily mere trades, and "sharp lawyers" are no more liked by the legal profession than long bills are liked by the physician's patient. With insuperable perseverance the national associations of law and medicine have been laboring to shake their respective professions free of disreputable or undesirable elements which would not be found therein were Justinian's legal precepts more carefully observed: Honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cuique tribuere. While the great professional bodies in America are slowly making the learned professions learned by arousing public interest in the matter and overcoming popular prejudice against the formation of a class of highly respectable if not highly skilled physicians and judges drawn from among the people themselves, the democracy of France, through its organ, the Government of that Republic, has been very solicitous to introduce the best methods of professional instruction in its higher education, and it is from the German university that the cue has been taken.

One of the most valuable and distinctive features of the German university is the "privat-docent," whose function in a university is to recommend himself by teaching some special branch that is too new and untested to be regularly introduced into official university instruction, but may be too important to be ignored by the conservatism of the regular official body of instructors. Thus as the common law is supposed to be a body of never-changing dicta, though in practice it is ever changing by the interpretation of the judges whose ideas are colored by those of the times, so the management of the German universities has premeditatedly introduced an agency that, by insidiously supplanting the contents of the encyclopedia of the truth taught at any given time, never allows the university to grow antiquated. As the privat docent is assured of nothing but what the value of his instruction and his energy can secure, he is less conservative than the fellow of the English university, who is at least assured of his fellowship and the emoluments therefrom arising.

By the act of November 5, 1877, this "privat docentism" was introduced into France under the name of maître de conferences," with this difference, however, the master of conferences is an official appointee, paid by the Government, which the privat docent is not; the maître is a part of the university hierarchy, while the docent is a free lance, tolerated, even patronized and subsidized, but still on sufferance.' The ideas of those who made this great change in higher education in France are recounted in the circular letter of advice of the French minister of public instruction, March 18, 1878, a part of which is here trauslated:

Mr. RECTOR: Article 1 of the 5th of November, 1877, established two distinct groups of maitres de conferences. You are aware, Mr. Rector, each of our faculties-in spite of the late great increase in 'L' education nouvelle, p. 31 et seq., Monsieur Breal, in his Excursions Pédagogiques, does not think that the State ought to pay the large number of maitres de conferences that are required in order to leave no lacunæ in the university programme. He would nationalize for France the real docent as found in Germany, merely changing his name into French, "docteur libre;" that is, in English, "independent professor or teacher," doctor in its old university sense meaning "a teacher."

2 France is a university divided into seventeen academies. Over each academy is a rector who has charge of educational interests within that academy. It must be understood that "Université de France" covers all French territory, and that academics are educational counties in this educational State or the Université de France.