Now, dreams may be defined to be trains of ideas and images confusedly heaped together during sleep, and resulting from irritation of the brain; that irritation admitting of many modifications, according to its peculiar condition-according to the endless variations of the general health-and according to the nature of any uneasiness, excess, or defect in any one organ of the body, arising to such a height, or continuing so long, as to produce sympathetic disturbance of the nervous system.

It is to be remarked, that there are no dreams in natural sleepthat is, in sound and quiet sleep→→→ the body being healthy, and the mind at ease: but if the brain shall have been irritated by deep mental emotion, intense or protracted study, the commencement of impending fever, or by the existence of any morbid action in the system, then dreams will be produced; will be generally traced to some disordered function; and will often appear among the first phenomena of disease. Now it is to be recollected, that in sleep the intellectual faculties are suspended, so far as regards the manifestation of their action; and therefore they do not enter into the component phenomena of dreaming. For, however some dreams may appear to be almost rational and consecutive, it will be always found that they want at least one link to constitute them perfect mental operations; there is a something wrong -a want of cohesion in the causes and consequences; an absence of truth, which (however vraisemblable they may occasionally seem) destroys their title to credence, and stamps them with the character of deviation from correct thinking. Thus, there is no accurate perception of the bearing of associated circumstances; there is no attention to first principles; there is no proper memory for, however the production of formerly associated images may seem to resemble memory, it will be found that it is

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always the automatic calling up of impressions which have been previously made upon the sensorial organ;-there is no intellectual association; there is no judgment, which presupposes comparison, and a regular adjustment of the claims of imagination: in fine, there is no exercise of the will; a proof of which is to be found in the great difficulty with which the patient arouses from the uneasy slumber of night-mare. However, therefore, the intellectual faculties may seem to be occasionally associated with dreams, it will always be found that this semblance of action is only the automatic production of the brain, from impressions which have been previously made upon it, as the organ of men. tal manifestation; consequently, that the apparently intellectual trains are merely organic associations. And it is well that they are so: for, on the contrary supposition, we should have great reason to blush for them ; andthere would be at least one spot, and that the brightest in the universe, where we should fail to trace the footsteps of that Almighty Architect, who has created all things in wisdom.

It may be said, that these dreams are the result of sin, which, having entered into the world, pervades its remotest boundary, and more especially the heart of man, and all its thoughts and actions; and that dreams are sleeping thoughts characterized by this fatal influence. And this is true but not in the sense of the objector. For, as it has been shewn that the intellectual faculties are not directly implicated in dreaming, and as there is no exercise of the will, there can be no responsibility; consequently no infraction of the Divine law. But the organ of the mind has suffered, in common with the whole man, from the perverting influence of the Fall: its manifestations have become disordered; and dreaming is one of its diseases. Hence, though man is not responsible for his dreams, he is awfully so for any course of con

duct, any trains of thought, any indulgence of unhallowed passion, which may afford painful, though automatic associations, for an irritated brain to revive.

Still farther: during sleep the senses are not capable of receiving their customary impressions, or of exerting their regular influence in controlling the wanderings of the intellectual faculties; but if sleep be disturbed from any cause, then impressions made upon the senses will produce that irritation of their nerves which, when propagated to the brain, will form the basis of a dream, or of a succession of dreams; in which may be produced, according to circumstances of varied irritation, and not according to any principle of choice or selection, a multitude of ideas, thoughts, opinions, habits, and associations, which have been acquired by individual intelligence, or which have been wrought out of knowledge so obtained by the agency of the intellectual principle, and which during such process exerted a certain influence upon the intellectual organ. This influence may be re-excited by organic impressions, and may give the semblance of the immaterial mind being engaged in the pursuit. But it will be found, that these trains may be called up to an extent, and with a degree of association, which it is impossible to restrain within defined limits: they are often incomplete; they may be grotesquely grouped; they may be true or false; they may be utterly incoherent; they are generally extravagant, and exceed all the ordinary bounds of credibility. If, then, these manifestations were referred to a continued action of the immaterial spirit, independently of external impressions, it would follow, that the soul, when unassisted by these external material assistances, thought most incorrectly —that is, that its actions were more pure and perfect now, when confined within its material tenement, than when disencumbered of mortality-which is an absurd result.

But, on the contrary, when the process of dreaming is referred to a continued action of the brain, having during sleep escaped the controul of the immaterial principle, all is harmony and beauty, and the Creator's laws stand vindicated from the charge of unreasonableness.

Again: the impression of uneasiness, received by the sensorial organ during the day, will often form the germ of a dream during the night; and many bodily uneasinesses will arise during that period, which will produce a similar effect: these impressions cannot be estimated, or compared, or referred to their true cause, because, reason and judgment being suspended, erroneous perceptions are occasioned; and these may possibly produce consecutive trains of association. These associations are generally of the wildest character; and thus afford another proof that organic irritation, not mental operation, is the proximate cause of dreaming.

A great variety of circumstances will operate as exciting causes of dreaming: an uneasy position, and the automatic act of turning to relieve it; the sensation of cold, and the associated action of covering ourselves with bed-clothes; or of heat, with the consequent effort to dismiss all our coverings; the influence of habit-as in the act of instinctively answering to a knock at our door in the morning, passing through a long dream produced by this impression, and then continuing to sleep on, still pursuing during that sleep the associated trains which had been awakened by the first sensorial impressions, and had been then thrown together in the most dire and inextricable confusion. Moreover, the influence of opium, or hyosciamus, belladonna, or aconite, or any other similar narcótic; much previous fatigue; continued mental emotion of whatever character; long-sustained study; general febrile indisposition; congestion of the brain; any point of local irritation, according to the intimacy of its union, or nearness

of connexion with the brain; and many other causes might be mentioned. Yet it will be seen, that all these causes agree in one particular mode of action-namely, that of producing a peculiar excite ment in the cerebral organ, which forms the point of disturbance to the nervous system. And it will be further seen, that this peculiar disturbance is not always of one kind, nor the same in degree, but that it varies with circumstances; and that, therefore, differing results may be expected; not only as the brain may be stimulated many degrees more or less than the standard of health; but as such mode of stimulation may be possessed of a particular character, which will communicate its tinge to the consequent images.

In approaching and imperfect sleep, when any one of these irritants exists, it is very usual for unreal images to present themselves to notice: figures exhibiting the most grotesque and even horrible grimaces; and forms the most undefined, or possessing the nearest possible resemblance to some living person, or to those long since gone; as well as fugitive configurations of different associated objects, arise, fade, and pass away; leaving behind them, on some favourably constituted brains, an impression so vivid that it bears the semblance of truth, and the mind cannot be persuaded to the contrary; nay, so strong is this belief, that any effort to undermine its foundation would produce a recoil in favour of what is most assuredly believed to be true. Thus, then, it will be seen, that any impression made upon the sensorial organ, which is insufficient to interrupt the process of sleep, may occasion dreaming.

This state is further elucidated by the condition of the mildly insane. As little consideration will shew that the perfect integrity of the brain is necessary to the manifestation of thought, so, consequently, wherever there exists any alteration of brain

ular function, the slightest increased disorder will produce amazing changes in the intelligence of such a patient; who, while he preserves the exercise of his senses, and even of some of his intellectual faculties, will nevertheless reason most incorrectly upon all, or upon some, or only one subject; and will associate the most monstrous and incoherent images. Here, then, is a proof of the influence exerted over the mental manifestations by slight irritation of the organ; much more is this influence exerted during sleep.

But, again, a very frequent cause of dreaming is a more extensive irritation of the brain, experienced by this organ, either primarily, during the approach or development of its own diseases; or consecutively, on the invasion of disorder of other organs with which it is associated; and even varied according to the particular relation of these organs and their functions: so that dreams will derive their character from whatever disturbance may happen to form the first link in the chain of morbid sympathy or association, or from whatever organ may, from its peculiar feebleness, become the prominent object of attention in the progress of malady.

Further: the dreams of disease will also present a great variety, according to the nature, the duration, the period, the simplicity, or the complication of the morbid action which produces them; and according to the physical temperament, habits, and idiosyncracies of the individual. In this short sentence will be found a sufficient explanation of the endless varieties of dreaming. It has been supposed that dreams may possess a peculiar character, from the existence of simple febrile action; but it is more philosophical, as well as more consonant with truth, to believe that fever always has a local origin, and that the peculiarities of febrile dreams are to be sought for in the particular organ which forms the cause of constitutional irritation. But the

division adopted in this Essay, of dreams arising from a greater or less degree of morbid disposition on the part of the brain itself, or of its consecutive irritation from the suffering of some other organ of the body, is sufficient for the present purpose. The time will probably arrive, when it will be possible to classify dreams, and when, from being referred to their organic cause, they will become symptoms which will greatly assist the diagno. sis of disease: but at present this is impossible; our knowledge is too limited, our observations are too few, to warrant any thing like generalization. This, however, we do know, that there are some forms of organic irritation so slight, that during our waking hours, and from attention to other things, they are not noticed; yet they are sufficient to disturb sleep, and to occasion dreaming. Often, indeed, in the early stage of malady, will this form the exclusive indication of disease; and the intensity and aggravation of dreams will mark the progress of such a disturbed state, while their gradually increasing mildness will equally proclaim the return of convalescence.

Again: the relation subsisting between dreams and their organic cause, will shew that certain apparent illusions, which occur during the act of dreaming, were really true in their germ, although they may have ultimately become the exaggerated or sophisticated expression of a real sensation.

Dreams will be sometimes characterized by the state of the brain during the incubation of disease, and before it has actually made its manifest attack—as in apoplexy, epilepsy, nervous fever,. typhus, &c. I have lately had an opportunity of witnessing, and of watching very narrowly, the dreams of the latter state, and the complete and perfect illusions to which they give rise, as well as the firmness of belief with which they are connected; as perfect, certainly, as that of any super

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stitious individual whose path has been crossed or whose pillow has been haunted by some supernatural appearance.

We must not omit to mention in this place the dreams of insanity, which are sometimes most extraordinary. Moreover, the peculiar state of the brain, producing this morbid condition of its manifestations, may be suspended during the day, and may be again renewed at night, so soon as the organ of the mind has lost the opportunity of verifying its impressions through the medium of the senses. This state of insanity may be transient ; it may be only momentary; and yet its delusion at that moment may be so complete as to lead the patient to commit the greatest crimes (if criminality could attach to insanity), not only without remorse, but even glorying in the illusion which has led perhaps to a fatal catastrophe.

There is a manifest difference between dreams which arise either from primary or secondary irritation of the brain: and even in the former case, between those which are the consequence of irritation arising from venous congestion, or from an increased supply of arterial blood. In the case of secondary irritation, it is probable that a modification of brainular action will occur (we might have said, it actually does happen) in exact correspondence with that of the organ which forms the primary source of irritation, and with its peculiar mode of morbid action; so that the process of dreaming will be characterized by this extensive variety of nervous impression; an impression still further modified by the peculiarities of its messengers; that is, of the nerves which convey these notices to the brain.

When primary irritation of this viscus is the cause of this diseased manifestation, where there is too great arterial action, sleep, will be light, easily disturbed, and approaching more nearly to the waking state;

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the patient is highly nervous; in a most sensitive and susceptible state; every impression is felt with an undue impulse; and hurried action, increased intensity of feeling, great rapidity in the succession of ideas and emotions, the sanguine vivacity of hope and cheerful expectation, and the great ease with which every difficulty is surmounted, will form the essential character of the dreams: because the brain is unduly excited; it receives a larger supply of its natural stimulus than it ought to do, or than it knows how to dispose of: and then, when sleep invades the patient, his brain is set at liberty from physical and moral restraint; and it operates largely, without effort or design, but chiefly through ideas and impressions already associated, and yet connected in a manner so extraordinary that we cannot even trace their cohesion or affinity.

In the opposite state, where congestion forms the chief symptom of brainular malady, sleep is profound, even heavy and oppressed. In this condition dreaming may occur, without producing a consciousness of such action; or, if the congested state be only slight, and the profoundness of sleep not unnatural, the associated images will have the semblance of great truth about them. There will be a character of reality attaching to dreams under these circumstances, which may leave an impression upon the waking hours not easily dissipated; and the associated impressions and emotions will possess an equal freedom and extent of operation, and yet will seem to possess a greater degree of cohesion, or, at least, will exhibit a family resemblance. These states may vary in a very short period, from change of posture, and various other circumstances; they may dis. tinctly alternate; or they may run into each other, so as to lose their defined outline: and these changes may happen during the course of one dream; an event which, connected with the different degrees of profundity of sleep, will go far to

account for the greater or less obvious attribute of rationality which occasionally seems to attend upon one dream; and also for the frequent interruption of the first action of a dream by another associated impression, which interferes with the harmony of the former action, and brings disorder and confusion into the whole process. Let it be remembered, that truth does occasionally attend these perceptions; but this is not often to be expected, and ought never to be calculated for, much less to be relied upon.

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Further it must be evident how much the morbid state of brainular action, which may be considered as accidental, must be influenced by the original conformation of the brain, and by various circumstances, both physical and moral, which have contributed to develop or to retard its manifestations; by habitual susceptibility to impression; by the amount of its literary labours; by the degree and kind of intelligence for which the individual is remarkable; by the effects of the light and shade of his intellectual and moral acquisitions; by the period of life, and situation in society; by the sex, and the associated plans of suitable intellectual and literary pursuit; by the frivolities of fashion and folly, or the varied plans of usefulness; by the prominent modes of thought, and action, and passion; by the influence of physical temperament; by the kind of life which has been previously led, or which is now resolved to be led; and by a host of apparently accidental circumstances in the manner of living, and thinking, and expression. Now. it will be seen that all these circum

stances operate a certain effect upon the organ by which the mental manifestations occur; and it is this effect which afterwards communicates its character to the dreaming state. And, again, the slightest deviation from health may so modify the disposition of the cerebral organ, as to change its mental manifestations; and this real or apparent