or others of a similar import.-2. Monks. To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine, It was customary for those who be. came Monks, to shave their heads; and by this ceremony, the ancient Greeks evinced their gratitude to the gods for any signal preservation. We may therefore naturally conclude, that it was established amongst the religious orders of Christians, in commemoration of their preservation and escape from the dangers and temptations of the world. I cannot conclude without adverting to some other queries set on foot by Mr. J. Hall, who is certainly possessed either of too much, or too little learning. Why (says this gentleman,) do clergymen, when they officiate at the altar, stand on the north side, with their face to the south, during part of the service? Now, as the altar stands at the east end of the church (for which he has assigned a wrong reason), the north side is the right-hand side of the altar, which being the place of honour, when there is only one clergyman, he takes the north side; when there are two, the senior clergyman takes the north, and the junior the south side; and they arrange themselves in this manner, not from any physical causes, but according to their rank and dignity. Thus far there can be no 'doubt; and if Mr. Hall will carefully examine the performance of the communion service, he will observe, that the clergy man never turns his face to the people, except when delivering something exclusively to them, as the Commandments or Epistles; nor to the south, except when repeating some prayer, which in the act of kneeling to the table, he must naturally do. It may also be observed, that whilst the clergyman on the north side turns his face to the south, the elergyman on the south side turns his face to the north; not from any respect to the sun, but merely because it is necessary for them to kneel: and thus the whole mystery is explained. As to St. John's representation of Death riding on a pale horse, it is equally, plain and obvious; and is a figure the same in kind, though infinitely sublimer in degree, than the following one of Horace : Pallida mors æquo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas, Regumque turres. For we may observe, that all prophecy, all scriptural prophecy at least, is delivered in language poetical and allegorical. But I am sorry to have detained you so long upon things so evident. C. B. B. A, SIR, HE successes of the French have Texcited in me, as probably in many others, a great desire to know the causes. Accordingly, I have embraced every opportunity of enquiring upon this subject, from persons who had been in action with them upon land; and I am certain that their testimony is concurrent, and that they could have no interest to deceive me. The following are the leading particulars. All accounts agree in stating, in vulgar language, that they will stand firing for everlasting; but that they almost uniformly retreat to a man, upon a charge with the bayonet. At the battle of Vimeira, general Ferguson placed a standard upon his stirrup, and after the address for a charge with the bayonet, advanced. The brigade took six pieces of cannon and two howitzers, by passing them on the charge, and the desertion of them by the French, who retreated and fired till they arrived at a prickly pear hedge. Behind this they formed, knowing that they could not be charged through that, and then renewed their fire, until dislodged. It is also stated, that at Corunna they did not advance, or stand, at the approach of the English with the bayonet. It must be evident, that an enemy like this, who will not come to close action, can never dislodge another from a hilly position, without immense numbers, and proportionate loss. The possession of the hill may place the greater number of troops under shelter, upon the opposite side to that attacked; and if the French risque the advantageous fire, as being above, of the lines in front, and artillery, they provoke the bayonet, at further disadvantage from the rising ground. When troops advance in close column, they suffer much more from the artillery, which makes lanes through them; and, if they stay long in that form, exposed to such a fire, they are inevitably defeated. Thus marshal Saxe obtained the victory at Fontenoy. The French knowing that so solid and compact a form, would give them a better security against the effects of the charge, thus attacked general Hill, at Talavera; and their want of success, is an unequivocal testimony of the steadiness and valour of the British troops. They fire with the utmost possible celerity, and their mosquets are nearly as light as fowling-pieces, and as long as duck-guns 1810.] Error in Calculating the Rising and Setting of the Sun. s21 duck-guns: the former our officers disapprove, from an opinion, that a deliberate steady fire does more execution. How far the lightness of the piece counterbalances opposite qualities, I own my my, stationed upon a hill, with a very great quantity of cannon and carronades, might gain great advantages; charging them with the bayonet when they advanced to the guns, and renewbelow them. self incompetent to decide. They leveling the fire again, when they were driven at the head. When French troops execute a movement, it is not required that their me thod of doing it should be according to the technical instructions, as at reviews. They perform it in double-quick time, by running, according to the quickest modes, or the instructions, pro tempore, of the commanding officer. When they rally, no distinction is consulted of their respective regiments and companies. They mingle together, with no further care than to form the body required. None of our officers speak so lightly of French troops as inexperienced persons at home: but they all ascribe their gigantic success to the only rational cause-numbers in aid of skill. To act against this, cannon, position, entrenchments, walls, fences, and other protect. ing securities, are evidently the most useful methods. X. Y. Z. To the Editor of the Monthly Magazine. SIR, Thus much time is saved; and they again useful Magazine are often devoted S the pages of your instructive and commence their favourite system, and grand dependance-an incessant fire. The contrivances and stratagems which they use, are scarcely credible. At Flushing, knowing that most of the shells would, of course, fall within the town, the greater part of the garrison at night lodged themselves in the ditches. Once they practised the following stratagem: They made a huge bonfire, and sent two parties out in concealed ambuscade, upon each side of it. Many of them then rushed out, and began dencing around it. Our men, conceiving that it was done from insult, or defiance, advanced to pick some of them off, by repeated shots. They soon however came within the line of fire from the concealed parties, and suffered severely by their mistake. It seems a clear case, that wherever there exists any thing like a chance of success, the French cannot be got rid of. Like flies to the carcase, they return again and again, and will exchange shot for shot, ad infinitum. Their grand secret of success is perseverance: their grand auxiliary agent, subtle policy. Profes sional science they can only share in common with other enlightened Europeans. It must be evident, that in coping with such troops, not only numbers are essential, but an undeviating attention to position and artillery. Carronades, contrived, for the sake of being portable, to screw upon the principle of rifle-barrel pistols, and thus be easily conveyed upon horse-back, the carriage also taking to pieces, might be eminently useful if in large numbers, and supply the deside ratum of an equal quantity of troops with their own. Perhaps a British ar MONTHLY MAG, No. 205, to the purpose of giving publicity to ideas of individuals, that may be likely to assist the exertions of industry, or the pursuits of science, the following tints may perhaps be honoured with a place, and prove not quite unacceptable to some of your readers; the subject appearing to have escaped the notice of those with whom accuracy of calculation is a matter of importance. The manner in which the rising and setting of the sun are usually calculated and set down by compilers of almanacks, ephemerides, &c. is certainly capable of some improvement; for though near enough for common purposes, it is not so in cases where great nicety is required. The times of rising and setting of the sun, are according to the length of its semi-diurnal arc, which being calculated from the declination of the sun at noon each day, is usually put down as the time of its setting; and subtracted from twelve hours, is taken as the time of its rising on the same day. This will befound incorrect, because in the lapse of the few hours from noon to sun-set, its declination has varied so much as to occasion its setting later or earlier in proportion as the declination has either increased or decreased, by that time; and at sun-rise, the declination being not the same as at noon or sun-set, will occasion the time of sun-rise to differ in the same proportion. Thus, if on March 21, the sun's declination be 0° 16' n. and on the 22d. 0° 39', at noon on each day; its declination at spn-set on the 21st, instead of 0° 16' (from which the time of setting is calculated) is become 0° 22′ nearly, causing the sun to continue about 2 T half half a minute longer above the horizon, and of course to set so much later; also at sun-rise on that day, the sun not having attained the declination of 0° 16', but only 0° 10' nearly, it emerges from the horizon about half a minute later than usually reckoned on; or, in other words, if the time of sun-rising be correctly ascertained on any day, and it vary two minutes later from day to day, the time of its setting will be half that time, or one minute later than would be found by subtracting its rising from twelve hours; so that, in fact, in the month of March, the afternoon is longer by one minute than the morning, and the contrary is the case in the month of September. About the time of the equinoxes, the declination varies from noon to sun-set about a quarter of the whole difference from noon to noon, the days and nights being then nearly equal; but in summer, when the time betwixt noon and sun-set is greater, being nearly one-third of the whole day, the declination at sun-set has varied one-third of the difference from noon to noon. In winter, the time elapsing from noon to sun-set being only one-sixth of the whole day, the difference of declination in that time is very trifling, especially as it varies but little in the whole day whilst the sun is near the tropics. I wish to offer this subject particularly to the consideration of those whose business it is annually to supply the public with ephemeris's, &c. which ought to be made as accurate as possible; and may be of importance in many cases, but in none more particularly than in computing the longitude from the time of the sun's rising, or setting. Sept. 22, 1810, R. W. revived for some months in 1757, and re-established by a decree of A'bdoulhhamyd in 1784, acquired a new activity by the especial protection of Selim III. Such was the activity, that the titles of the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian books, printed after the accession of this prince to the throne, forms a considerable catalogue. A very extensive office was recently established at Scutari, by an express order of the sultan, and the imperial press was transferred thither in 180s. In 1808, when the tumults commenced at Constantinople, the Janissaries set fire to this office. The first work which issued from the press of Scutari, soon after the removal just mentioned, is the French work of the engi neer Seid Mustapha. The characters used in printing it are the same as those which the renegado Ibrabym Bassmahdjy made, in order to complete his typographical establishment in 1727. A Turkish Grammar, written in French, which was published at Constantinople in 1730, was to be followed by a Dictionary Italian, Turkish, Greek, &c. of which only the first leaf appeared in folio. These Roman characters, there being no italic, are not to be compared to the Turkish, or rather Arabick characters, executed by the same Ibrahym. These, which served equally for the Arabick, Turkish, and Persian, imitate the writing very well, although cramped by ligatures, absolutely indispensable, in order to prevent the letter-case being too considerable, and the composition long and embarrassing. A character, some what less thick and more slender, but absolutely outlined upon the first for the forms of the letters, and the typographic system, was afterwards made. The foundation of a new and large school of mathematics, was projected near the arsenal of Sudlidzé, by Selim III. and provided with masters and scholars, who received permanent salaries. They commenced their public labours. It was the first time that the ignorant people of Constantinople had heard of public ma thematical lectures, and the outcry of the unskilful and ignorant was universal. The professors were molested, and almost persecuted. A continual clamour was made, "Why do they draw these lines upon paper? What advantage can be derived from it? War is not made by the rule and compass." Fatigued in this manner, and despairing of being able to open the eyes of the public, they were as sisted anew by the benign influence of their august august sovereign. He took the opportunity of palpably demonstrating to all classes of men, the great advantage of the mathematical sciences, when applied to the art of war, and to fortification. He caused them to make plans of regular and irregular fortresses, according to the positions of the different places, which were pointed out to them. He made them assign their reasons in writing, for the preference given to the plan of fortification, which they thought best. They proved their assertions with every argument which the science of engineering suggested; and after the publication of thein, he made them construct models of those small forts in the countries of Mir-ahowr, Kiochku, Ok-Meidani, and Levendtziftilik, and other places around Constantinople. These models of small fortresses, very skilfully executed under the direction of the establishinent, with their bastions of turf, their covered-ways, and other dependances, attracted an immense crowd of the inhabitants of Constantinople. There, upon fixed days, the sultan made them superintend military exercises and evolutions. They collected the necessary number of soldiers and officers, for the defence of these small places. They gave the plan of attack to the assailants. Many operations were executed according to the wish and to the satisfaction of Selim, who had no other object than to excite the admiration of the public, and show the utility, or rather the necessity, of having regular troops, officers of merit, and able engineers, the only methods of making war with advantage. In fact, the greatest success crowned these attempts; a gene ral approbation followed; and marks of satisfaction succeeded malignant intentions, and cutting railleries. A change so unexpected exceeded their hopes, and they gave lessons every day in all the branches of mathematics, and there was a great conflux of pupils. At last the professors were esteemed, feasted every where, and (as they express themselves) happy. Selim was not yet satisfied. He de manded of them able officers for his regular troops. Their pupils were taken from the artillery and engineer depart ments, in order to acquire the knowledge requisite for their profession, and then consigned to their corps, as able officers. Commissions of great difficulty were also imposed. Besides able landsurveyors furnished to the state, a greater object was required. Selim wished to have a chart of all the Asiatic countries under his dominion. A general atlas, recently issued from the new printingoffice, composed of the best maps of mo dern geographers, which might serve to elucidate a course of geography, and a new Dictionary, translated into Turkish, gave birth to this resolution; for it is well known, that Asia has been much mis. taken by the best European geographers. Immediately after the peace, as may be seen by the code of new regulations of the Ottoman empire by Selim III. composed in Turkish and French, and afterwards translated into many languages, the restoration of the finances, by the creation of a new fiscal treasury, took place; the formation of a new corps of regular troops ensued next; new barracks and cannon-founderies were built; schools for the propagation of the sciences, were erected and established; manufactories, magazines, and every kind of necessary establishment, were instituted at the same time; and no branch of a general reform was neglected. All these fine institutions would have remained in their infancy, if the consistent and immutable character of Selim III. had not come to their aid. The plan of renovation being drawn, he pursued it with that inflexible sang froid which characterizes superior men: his ardour, instead of being damped by the difficul. ties thrown in his way, redoubled. Not satisfied with ameliorating and multiplying the regular troops in his establishment of Levendtziftilik, he con ceived the project of creating the army anew, and executed it. Opposite to the point of the seraglio, a dependance of the town of Scutari, near the remains of the ancient seraglio, is a large and ancient country-residence, which the sul tans, his predecessors, highly esteemed. There, almost under his immediate di rection, was built a very fine and ample edifice, in form of barracks. A very extensive hippodrome was added, for the daily exercise of the infantry and cavalry. A mosque, habitations for the principal officers, baths, shops, and all the necessary dependances to form a second town, were newly and regularly built. A new and vast printing-house was established, enriched with types in many languages, and all kinds of instruments for engraving maps, and other plans; in short, more than five millions of piasters were expended upon this new institution. Thus Selim gratified his known desire for the propagation of use. 'ful science in his empire. He imposed silence upon every pusillanimous remonstrance; he showed that he was above the petty considerations of mediocrity; and thus stopped the mouth of ignorance, and forced all classes of men to follow his example, sooner than make the impracticable attempt of endeavour ing to shake his resolutions. The legion of Scutari, like that of Levendtziftilik, was divided into different battalions and squadrons, after given rules. The form of their close and light habits, the colours constituting their uniforms, the ensigns of honour which distinguished the officers, were no longer objects of contempt or hatred, but, on the contrary, means of encouragement. Thus the soldiers, exercising part of every day, and firing twice a-week, became sufficiently skilful to execute all the military evolutions, charmed all present by their movements in a body, and produced in the natives a desire of enlisting. Many European strangers, who assisted in their exercises, observed, that they could not think them, from the agility of the execution, soldiers newly enrolled, but veterans who had made many campaigns. The officers of the two legions, who assisted at the lessons in the mathe matical school, displayed great sagacity. They applied every theorem to their art with the utmost facility and justness: among these, the inhabitants of Constantinople distinguished themselves beyond those of the country. The inclination to enlist became general, and it was not uncommon to see a recruit of three or four weeks standing, perform the manual, and keep his line, with all the adroitness of an old soldier. The only vexation of Selim was the number of his regular troops. He was always uneasy at not seeing the quantity which he had projected complete, like the corps of artillery; for, besides those of the latter, who were sufficient for many large divisions of an army, companies of canoniers fusiliers were organized, for defence of the artillery; and, being annexed to a Corps, could, in case of necessity, form regiments of the line. Selim, however, after having put the last hand to his establishment at Scutari, no longer waited for the enrolment made in the capital, but ordered a voluntary conscription in his provinces of Asia Minor; that is, a contingent of a certain number was furslied by each. It made a total of 12 000 recruits, with experienced officers to dull them, reviewed incessantly by the sovereign in person. This arrange. ment, once happily settled, in the follow. ing years a much larger number might be trained with the least possible difficulty. The legion of Scutari had been provided with the best-conditioned cavalry. It is known, that the Timariots at all times formed the best cavalry of the empire; and that, by the lapse of time, abuses introduced into their establishment, had relaxed their zeal, and almost paralysed their institution. Selim had paid attention to this corps from the commencement, of his reign, had introduced new regulations to correct the abuses which had crept into it, and decreed, that a part of these provincial troops should be incorporated with the different corps of infantry of the line (as usually practised in Europe) in order to be drilled in military evolutions. Thus the Zaims and Timariots became a permanent corps of cavalry, attached to the legion of Scutari, and subjected to daily exercise. Naturally excellent horsemen, their agility and lightness, united with the uniformity of movements, acquired by tactics, promised one day to surprise military cognoscenti. The number of this excellent cavalry annexed to the different bodies of troops of the line, amounted to from four to five thousand men; and, on account of their annexation to the regular troops, they wore a new uni form, as well as their officers, who had the distinctive marks of their corps. Each company successively, from six months to six months, performed their exercise before the barracks of the corps to which it was annexed; and at Scutari, a place was marked out for building particular barracks for the reception of troops who arrived in succession. The influx of recruits on all sides, sug gested new establishments. The barracks around Constantinople not being capable of containing more people, although the greatest part of the soldiers were absent on furlough, and a good part employed, it was represented to the sultan, that it would be much more economical to augment them out of the capital; for this purpose he built, in dif ferent towns of Natolia, many large barracks, for points of concentration of the military exercise. In each of these cen tral places, a considerable part of the troops of certain districts was permanently trained, without ceasing. In proportion as these troops became perfectly disci plined, they were relieved by others.. Upon a plan similar to these establish ments in Asia, others were fixed in the most convenient parts of Romelia; thus |