fectly or not at all. Actions which require the co-operation of both sides of the body cannot be performed unhesitatingly as they can be when both sides are hypnotised, the normal side exhibiting a tendency to make interferences with and inhibitions of the movements of the other. So remarkable an instance as that of hypnotising one eye has been observed; in these cases colour blindness ensued.1 § 22. Dr. Carpenter thus sums up the characteristics of this abnormal condition: (1) The entire engrossment of the mind. with whatever may be for a time the object of its attention; so that sensory impressions are perceived with extreme vividness, longforgotten ideas retraced with the most remarkable distinctness, and muscular movements performed with extraordinary energy and the most precise adaptiveness; (2) The passive receptivity of the mind (when not previously engrossed by some dominant idea of its own) for any notion that may be suggested to it; the particular course which such suggested train of ideas will take being much influenced by the temperament of the subject,' and by the previous habits of thought and feeling.2 § 23. The following are some of Mr. Sully's observations upon the subject: Braid, the writer who did so much to get at the facts of hypnotism, and Dr. Carpenter, who has helped to make known Braid's careful researches, regard the actions of the hypnotised subject as analogous to ideo-motor movements; that is to say, the movements due to the tendency of an idea to act itself out apart from volition. On the other hand, one of the latest inquirers into the subject, Professor Heidenhain, of Breslau, appears to regard these actions as the outcome of unconscious perceptions.' 'Animal Magnetism;' English translation, p. 43, etc.) 6 In the absence of certain knowledge, it seems allowable to argue from the analogy of natural sleep that the actions of the hypnotised patient are accompanied with the lower forms of consciousness, including sensation and perception, and that they involve dreamlike hallucinations respecting the external circumstances of the moment. Regarding them in this light, the points of resemblance between hypnotism and dreaming are numerous and striking. . . . The condition of hypnotism is marked off from that of natural sleep, first of all by the fact that the accompanying hallucinations are wholly due to external suggestion (including the 1 G. Stanley Hall, Recent Researches in Hypnotism. Mind, No. XXI. effects of bodily posture). Dreams may, as we have seen, be very faintly modified by external influences, but during sleep there is nothing answering to the perfect control which the operator exercises over the hypnotised subject. The largest quantity of our "dream-stuff" comes, as we have seen, from within and not from without the organism. And this fact accounts for the chief characteristic difference between the natural and the hypnotic dream. The former is complex, consisting of crowds of images and continually changing; the latter is simple, limited, and persistent. As Braid remarks, the peculiarity of hypnotism is that the attention is concentrated on a remarkably narrow field of mental images and ideas. . . . It being thus in a certain rapport, though so limited and unintelligent a rapport with the external world, the mind of the hypnotised patient would appear to be nearer the condition of waking illusion than is the mind of the dreamer. It must be remembered, however, and this is the second point of difference between dreaming and hypnotism, that the hypnotised subject tends to act out his hallucinations. His quasi percepts are wont to transform themselves into actions with a degree of force of which we see no traces in ordinary sleeps.' 6 § 24. There are all degrees of completeness of hypnotic possession, the weaker forms being observed in cases where persons are said to be biologised.' In this condition the mind responds mechanically, as in the complete hypnotic state, to external impressions and influences, but seems and is awake, and preserves afterward in most cases a distinct recollection of what occurred in the 'biological' state, both of which latter circumstances are contrary to those found in the conditions we have been considering above. These differences indicate nothing more than a difference in the intensity of the abnormal state. From habit, or § 25. The hypnotic state can be self-induced. from the expectation of going to sleep at a certain time, persons sometimes fall into that condition without any effort or attempt to induce it. It may be suspected also that many times partial hypnotism occurs without the knowledge of the person experiencing it, and that in such states numerous of the phenomena of 'spiritualism' arise as hallucinations whose objectivity, nevertheless, is firmly believed in during the experience and on after recollection. The mesmeric state and the clairvoyant are further 1 Dr. Carpenter op. cit. Chap. XIV. G. S. Hall, Mind, No. XXI. Dr. Carpenter op. cit. Chap. XVI. examples of hypnotic conditions. As to what the experiences in these states actually are, we have very little information of scientific value. I have personally endeavoured many times and with a great amount of persistence to get at the facts with regard to them, but have in every instance been baffled, either through the failure of any extraordinary events to occur in my presence or through the unwillingness of mediums' to allow any thorough investigation into what did happen. I am, therefore, compelled to say that I cannot add anything to what has been written by investigators of acknowledged scientific character upon these subjects. I believe, however, that the study of these abnormal conditions, especially hypnotism and some morbid states, will extend our knowledge both of mind and matter vastly beyond what is now anticipated. 6 INTOXICATION. § 26. Intoxication is a temporary abnormal state brought about by the introduction into the blood of special substances, the chief of which are Alcohol, Opium, and Hasheesh. It is marked by a diminution of normal volitional control, and by an increased involuntary redintegrating activity. It is also marked by a pleasurable exaltation, followed by a corresponding depression after the intoxication begins to pass off. The state of feeling is the most characteristic feature of intoxication. In the period of exhilaration everything experienced in redintegration has a pleasurable quality, and even actual painful sensations are blunted and disguised. On the other hand, during the period of depression a general painful feeling colours and pervades everything. § 27. Sensations are exaggerated in this condition, and perception is frequently rendered illusory. Errors are made in estimates of time and space, and oftentimes the representative objects are assumed to be presentative. There is a great stimulation of the redintegrating movements, especially in the direction of constructions. Sometimes, as in the case of alcoholic intoxication, efferent activity is increased; sometimes, as from opium, a sedative effect is produced upon outward action. § 28. On the volitional side, the peculiarity of this state lies in the predominance of ideo-motor action, and the paralysis of proper voluntary action. The ideas which occupy consciousness are accompanied with an unusual strength of disposition to act themselves out, and are also attended with an extraordinary degree of pleasurable feeling. This condition prevents any painful asso ciations with acts toward which the dominant ideas determine one from entering the field of consciousness, as they would do in the normal state. Hence the ordinary deterrents cannot operate, and therefore we have the phenomenon of greatly weakened voluntary control. Voluntary redintegration is of course affected in the same way as voluntary efferent activity. Repeated indulgence in the use of intoxicating substances induces a disease which accomplishes an intensification of the volitional paralysis, and which brings about more permanent conditions of depression and debility analogous to, but greater than, those seen after an occasional intoxication has passed off. DELIRIUM AND INSANITY. § 29. Similar effects to those of intoxication follow diseased conditions of the blood, as manifested in delirium. The unbalanced exercise of mental powers which appears in the former state is conspicuous also in the latter, but in delirium illusions and hallucinations of perception are more prevalent than during intoxication, except when the latter is complicated with disease. Moreover, the general quality of feeling in delirium is painful. Again, after recovery there is small power of recalling what occurred or what the patient did during his delirious condition. § 30. Insanity is a general term covering abnormal consciousness of a somewhat permanent character which arises from diseased conditions of the nervous system. There are all varieties and grades of insanity, so that it is quite impossible to define its. limits or to lay down any certain criteria applicable to all cases. Indeed, extraordinary mental powers and extraordinary exercises of them have frequently led to the charge of insanity, when there was not sufficient justification, or even no justification at all, except that the mental action was unusual. But the point to be noted is the association in the minds of men between 'great wit' and madness. And this alliance has commanded the attention of thinkers and observers of human nature at all times. Both Seneca and Aristotle assert that there is no genius free from an infusion of madness; and in all literature we find a reiteration of the same doctrine. The eccentric man, the progressive man, the one whose thought is in advance of his time, is very frequently accused of insanity; while nearly every reformer who, with singleness of purpose, devotes himself to the accomplishment of some specific result, is styled a monomaniac. VOL. II. E § 31. The most extreme form of insanity of the most characteristic type is mania. In this case there is exhibited a state of great emotional excitability with want of volitional control, and an intellectual disturbance which may produce incoherency of thought, hallucinations, or the complete possession of the fixed. idea. The uncontrollable passion, governing intellect, volition and action, which is the most conspicuous symptom of mania, is very apt to be a malevolent one, and the individual suffering seems unable to reflect upon the consequences of his acts. The most violent outbreaks follow each other in rapid succession, the physical expressions being principally those of anger and fear, though other emotional expressions are not wanting. § 32. In those forms of insanity of which idiocy is the extreme type there is a more marked intellectual and less evident emotional disorder. There are failures of the perceptive powers, and most notably of memory. The result of this is to create an absolute incoherency of ideas, all associations of experience are broken up, reasoning is impossible, and self-consciousness is impaired to a degree we know not of; it would seem that the sufferer is reduced to the level of the most rudimentary consciousness of animal life, where the representative power is so low as to preclude any consciousness of continuity of existence. With this intellectual prostration goes less of volitional control, of course, and also frequently paroxysmal emotional disorders. Consciousness is affected under all its aspects. § 33. In monomania we find the insanity of the fixed idea. This is only an exaltation of the phenomena of the persistence of ideas. It is regarded as insane when the impulse and tendency relate to some act or set of acts of a criminal nature, or when it is inspired by an obvious hallucination. It is oftentimes extremely difficult to determine whether the patient is, to speak paradoxically, an insane or a sane monomaniac. Kleptomania is a comparatively mild variety of this disorder. § 34. Without dwelling longer upon the different symptoms and varieties of insanity, the conclusion which I wish to impress upon the reader as the one chiefly concerning our present study is expressed in the following words of Dr. Carpenter, with which we will pass on to our next topic:-In the first place, it may be unhesitatingly affirmed that there is nothing in the physical phenomena of insanity which distinguishes this condition from states that may be temporarily induced in minds otherwise |